form and ornament in ceramic art. william h. holmes.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

FORM AND ORNAMENT IN CERAMIC ART.

WILLIAM H. HOLMES.

437

COKTE1VTS.

Page.

Introductory 443

Originofform 445

By adventitkm ⁴⁴⁵

By imitation 445

Byinvention 450

Modification ofform ⁴⁵⁰

Byadventition 450

By^{intention 452}

Origin ofornament 453

Fromnatural objects 454

From artificial objects 455

Functionalfeatures 455

Constructional features 456

Fromaccidentsattendingconstruction 457

From ideographicandpictorialsubjects 457

Modification ofornament 457

Through material 458

Throughform 458

Through methodsof realization 45'J

439

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.4fi4.

—

^{Formderivedfrom agourd 446}

465.

—

Formderived froma couch^{shell 447}

466.

—

Formderivedfroma stoue pot 448

467.

—

^{Form derivedfroma wooden tray 448}

468.

—

^{Form derivedfroma horn spoon 448}

469.—Form ^derivedfromabarkvessel 448

470.

—

Formderivedfrom basketry 449

471.

—

^Formderivedfrom basketry ⁴⁴⁹

472.

—

Form derivedfroma woodenvessel 449

473.

—

^{Coincidentforms 451}

474.

—

Form producedby^{accident 451}

475.—Scrollderived from thespireof aconchshell 454 476.

—

Theoreticaldevelopmentof currentscroll 455 477.

—

^{Ornamentderived through}modification ofhandles 455

478.

—

^{Scrollderivedfromcoilof clay 456}

479.

—

^{Ornamental use offilletsof clay 456}

480.

—

^{Variation through}the influence ofform 459

481.

—

Theoreticaldevelopmentofthe currentscroll 460 482.

—

^{Formsofthe samemotiveexpressedindifferent arts 461}

483.

—

^{Formsof thesamemotiveexpressed indifferentarts 461}

484.

—

^{Formsof thesamemotiveexpressedindifferent arts 461}

485.

—

^{Geometric formoftextileornament 462}

486.

—

Loss of geometric accuracyinpainting 462

487.

—

^{Designpainted uponpottery 463}

488.

—

Theoreticaldevelopmentof fretwork 464

489.

—

Theoreticaldevelopmentofscroll work 465

111

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ^OF FORM AND ORNA- MENT IN CERAMIC ART.

By William

H.

Holmes.

.

INTRODUCTORY.

For theinvestigationofartin itsearlystages

and

in its widestsens-e- there is probably no fairer field than that afforded byaboriginal

Amer

ica, ancient

and

modern.

At

theperiod of discovery, art ata

number

ofplacesonthe

American

continent seems to

have

been developing surely

and

steadily, through the force of the innate genius of therace,

and

the

more

advanced na- tions were already approaching the threshold of civilization; at the

same

time their

methods

were characterized

by

great simplicity,

and

their art products are, as a consequence, exceptionallyhomogeneous.

The

advent of

European

civilization checked the current of growth,

and new and

conflicting elements were introduced necessarily disas- trous to the native development.

There is much, however, in the art of living tribes, especially of those leastinfluenced

by

thewhites,capable ofthrowing light

upon

the obscure passages of precolumbian ^art.

By

supplementing the study ofthe prehistoric by that of historic art, which ^{is still} in

many

casesin its incipient stages,

we may

hope to penetrate deeply into the secrets of the past.

The

advantages of this field, as

compared

with Greece, Egypt,

and

the Orient, will be apparent

when we remember

^{that the}

dawn

ofart in these countries lies hidden inthe

shadow

of

unnumbered

ages, while oursstands outinthe lightofthe very present. Thisis well illustrated by^a

remark

of Birch, who,indwelling

upon

the antiquity of the fictile art, says that " the existenceof earthen vessels in

Egypt was

at least coeval with the formation of a written language."¹

Beyond

this there

is acknowledged chaos. In strong contrast with this, is the fact that all precolumbian

American

pottery precedes the acquisition of written language, and thiscontrast is emphasized

by

the additionalfact thatit also antedates the use of the wheel, that great perverter of the ^plastic tendencies ofclay.

1Birch: History ofAncientPottery, 1873, p.8.

443

444

The

material presentedin the following notesis derivedchieflyfrom the native ceramic artof the United States,butthe principlesinvolved areapplicable toall times

and

to allart, as they are based

upon

the lawsofnature.

Ceramic^artpresentstwo classes of

phenomena

of importance in the study of the evolution of ^{aestheticculture.} Theserelate, first,to

form

and second, to ornament.

Form, as

embodied

inclay vessels,embraces,1st,useful shapes,which

may

or

may

notbeornamental, and,2d, (estheticshapes,whichareorna- mental and

may

^{beuseful. There are} also grotesqueandfanciful shapes, which

may

or

may

not beeither useful orornamental.

No

^{formor classofformscanbesaid to}characterizeaparticularageor stage of culture. In a general way, of course, thevesselsof primitive peoples willbesimple inform, while those of

more

advancedraces will be

more

variedand highly specialized.

The

shapes first

assumed by

vessels in clay depend

upon

the shape of the vessels

employed

at thetime of the introduction of the art,

and

these depend, ^toa great extent,

upon

the kind

and

gradeof culture of the people acquiring theart

and upon

the resources of the countryin

whichthey live.

To

illustrate: If, for instance,

some

of thehighly ad- vanced

Alaskan

tribes which do not

make

pottery should migrate to anotherhabitat, less suitabletothe practice of theirold arts and well adapted to artinclay,

and

should there acquire theartofpottery,they woulddoubtless, toagreatextent,copy theirhighlydeveloped utensils of wood, bone, ivory,

and

basketry,

and

thus reach a high grade of ceramic achievement ⁱⁿ the first century of the practice of the art;

but, on the other hand, if certain tribes, verylow in intelligence and havingno vessel-makingarts, should undergoa corresponding change of habitat and acquire the art of pottery, theymight not reach in a thousand years, if left to themselves, a grade in the artequal tothat of the hypothetical

Alaskan

potters inthe first decade. It is, there- fore,not theageoftheartitselfthatdeterminesitsforms,but thegrade and kind of artwith

which

itoriginates

and

coexists.

Ornamentis subjectto similar laws.

Where

pottery isemployed by peoplesin very low stages of culture, its ornamentationwill beof the simple archaic kind. Being a conservative art

and much hampered

by the restraints of convention, the elementary forms of

ornament

are carried a long

way

into the succeeding periods

and

have a very decided effect

upon

the higher stages. Pottery brought ^intouse ^for the first time by

more

advanced races will never pass through the elementary stage of decoration, but will take itsornamentgreatlyfrom existing artand carry this

up

inits

own

peculiar

way

throughsucceed- inggenerations.

The

character of the ornamentation does not there- fore depend

upon

theage ofthe artso

much

as

upon

theacquirements of the potter

and

his people in otherarts.

holmesi

ORIGIN

OB"

CERAMIC FORMS. 445

ORIGIN OF FORM.

Iii orderto convey aclear idea ofthebearing of the precedingstate- ments

upon

thehistory of form

and

ornament, it will be necessary to present a

number

of points in greaterdetail.

The

^followingsynopsis will give a connectedviewofvarious possible origins of form.

(By adventition.

Origin ofform ByImitation {gfSSSSSl'SHt.

IBy^invention.

FORMS SUGGESTED BY ADVENTITION.

The

suggestions of accident, especiallyin the early stages ofart, are oftenadopted,

and become

fruitfulsourcesof

improvement and

progress.

By

such

means

the use ofclay

was

discovered and Ihe ceramic art

came

into existence.

The

^accidental indentation of a

mass

of clay

by

the foot, or hand, or

by

afruit-shell, or stone,while serving as an auxiliary in

some

simple^art,

may have

suggested the

making

ofa cup, the sim- plest form ofvessel.

The

use of clay asa

cement

in repairing utensils, in protectingcom- bustible vessels from injuryby ^fire, orin building

up

the wallsof shal- low vessels,

may

alsohaveled to theformation of disks or cups, after-

wards independently constructed. In

any

case the objects or utensils with

which

the clay

was

associated in its eailiest use would impress theirforms

upon

^it. Thus, if clay were used in deepening or

mending

vessels of stone

by

a given people, itwould,

when

used independently

by

that people,tend to

assume

shapes suggested bystonevessels.

The same may

besaid ofits use in connection with

wood and

wicker,orwith vessels ofother materials.

Forms

ofvessels so derived

may

be said to have an adventitious origin, yet they are essentially'copies, although not so by desigu,

and may

as readily be placed under the succeeding head.

FORMS DERIVED BY IMITATION.

Clay has no inherent qualities of a nature to impose a given form orclass offorms

upon

itsproducts, as

have

wood, bark, bone, orstone.

Itis so mobile astobequite free to take form from surroundings,

and

whereextensively usedwill record orecho a vast deal of natureandof coexistent art.

In this observation

we

havea key that will unlock

many

ofthemys-

teries of form.

In the investigation of this pointitwill benecessaryto consider the processes

by which

an art inherits or acquires theforms of anotherart or of nature,

and how

one material imposesits peculiarities

upon

an- othermaterial. In early stages of culturethe processes ofartareclosely akiu to those of nature, the

human

agent hardly ranking as

more

than

446 FORM AND

a part of the environment.

The

primitive artistdoes not proceed

by

methods ^identical with our own.

He

does not deliberately

and

freely examine all departmentsof nature or art

and

select formodels those things most convenient or

most

agreeable to fancy; neither does he experiment with theview of inventing

new

forms.

What

he attempts depends almost absolutelyupon

what

happens tobe suggested

by

pre- ceding forms, and so narrow and so direct are the processes of his

mind

that,

knowing

his resources,

we

could closely predict hisresults.

The

rangeof models in the ceramicart is at first verylimited, and includes only those utensilsdevoted to the particular useto which the clay vessels are to be applied; later, closely-associated objects

and

utensils are copied. In thefirst stages of art,

when

the savage

makes

a weapon, he modifiesor copies aweapon;

when

he

makes

a vessel, he modifies orcopies a vessel.

This law holds good in an inverseratio to culture, varying to acer- tain extent with the character of the material used.

Natural originals.

—

^{Natural originals,} both animal

and

vegetable, necessarily differwith thecountry

and

theclimate, thus giving rise to individual characters in artforms often extremely persistent

and

sur- viving decided changesof environment.

The

gourd is probablythemostvaried and suggestive naturalvessel.

We

^find that the primitive potter lias oftencopied itintbe most^literal manner.

One

example only, out of the

many

available ones,is neces- sary. This is from a

mound

in southeastern Missouri.

InFig. 4GI, aillustrates a

common

^formof the gourd, whilebrepre- sents theimitation in clay.

a,Goiml. 6,Clayvessel.

FIG.4G4.

—

Formderivedfroma gourd.

All nations situated

upon

the sea or upon large rivers use shells of mollusks, which, without modification,

make

excellent receptacles for waterand food. Imitations of these are often found

among

the prod- ucts of the potter's art.

A

good example from the Mississippi Valley

is

shown

inFig. 465, ^<t being the original andb the copy in clay.

In Africa, and in other countries, such natural objects as cocoauut

shells,

and

ostrich eggs areused in like manner.

ORIGIN OF CERAMIC FORMS. 447 Another

^class of vessels, those

made

from the skins, bladders, aud stomachs of animals, should alsobementioned in this connection, asit is certainthat their influencehas frequentlybeen feltin theconforma- tion of earthen ^utensils.

In searchingnature, therefore, for originalsof primitiveceramicforms

we

havelittleneed of going outside ofobjects that in theirnaturalor slightly altered state are available for vessels.

a, Shell. b,Clay.

Fig. 465

—

Formderivedfromaconchshell.

True, otherobjects

have

beeu copied.

We

find a multitude of the higher natural forms, both animal

and

vegetable,

embodied

invessels of clay, buttheir presence^is indicative of a

somewhat

advanced stage of art,

when

the copying ofvesselsthat were functionally properante- cedents

had

given rise to a familiarity with the use of clay

and

a capacityin handling it that,with advancingculture,broughtallnature within the reach of the potter

and made

^{itassist in} the processes of variation

and

development.

Artificial originals.

—

^Thereis

^{no doubt}

^that

^among

^{mostpeoples art}

had producedvessels in other materials antecedenttotheutilization of clay. These would be legitimate models ^for the potter

aud we may

therefore expect to find

them

repeated in earthenware. In this

way

the art has acquired a multitude of

new

forms,

some

of which

may

be natural forms at second hand, that is to say, with modifications imposed

upon them by

the material in which theywere first shaped.

But

all materials other thanclay areexceedingly intractable, and im- press their

own

characters so decidedly

upon

forms produced in

them

that ultimate originals,

where

there are such, cannot often betraced through them.

It will be mostinteresting tonote the influence of these peculiarities of originals

upon

theceramicart.

A

^nation having stone vessels, likethose ofCalifornia, on acquiring the art of pottery would use the stone vessels as models,

and

such forms as that given in Fig. 466 would arise, a beingin stone and b in clay, the formerfrom California

aud

the^latterfrom Arizona.

Similar forms would just as readily

come

from gourds, baskets, or other globular utensils.

Nations having

wooden

vessels would copy

them

^{in clay}on acquir- ing the art of pottery. This would give rise to a distinct group of forms, the result primarily of the peculiarities of the

woody

structure.

448 FORM AND

Thus

in Fig. 467, a,

we

havea form of

wooden

vessel, asortof winged trough that ^I have^frequentlyfound copied inclay.

The

earthenvessel given ⁱⁿ Fig.4(17, b.

was

obtainedfrom an ancient grave in Arkansas.

«,stone. 6,clay.

Fig. 4G6.

—

Formderivedfromastone pot.

The

carapace of

some

species of turtles, and perhaps even the hard case of the armadillo, could be utilized in n similar way.

The

shaping of a kuot of

wood

often givesrise to a dippershaped

Fig.-167

—

Formderived from awoodentray.

vessel, such as

may

be found in use by

many

^tribes,

and

^is as likely an original for the dipperform in clay as isthe gourdor the couchshell;

the familiar horn vessel of the westerntribes, Fig. 4CS, a, would have

a,Horn. ^h.Clay.

Fig.468.—Formderivedfromahornspoon.

served equallywell.

The

specimen given in b isfrom Arkansas.

As

arule, however, suchvessels cannot be traced to their originals, since

n, Hark. b,Clay.

Fig.409.—Foimderivedfrom a barkvessel.

by copying

and

recopyiug theyhave variedfrom the parent form,tend- ingalways towarduniform conventional shapes.

HOLMES.]

FORMS ORIGINATING

IN

BASKETRY. 449

A

^{vessel of} rectangularoutline

might

originate in

wood

orbark. In Fig. 400,a,

we

havea usual formofbarktray,which^ispossiblythepro- totype of the square-rimmed earthen vessel givenin b.

Basketry

and

other classes of

woven

vessels take a great variety of forms and, being generally antecedent to the potter's art

and

COU-

rt,Wicker. b,Clay.

Fig.470.

—

^Formoriginatinginbasketry.

stantly present withit, have leftan indelible impression

upon

ceramic forms. This is traceableintheearthenwareof nearlyall nations.

The

clayvessel ^is an intruder,

and

usurps the place and appropriates the

a,Wicker. b,Clay.

Fig.471.

—

Formoriginatingiubasketry.

dress of its predecessor in wicker.

The

form illustrated in Fig. 470, o, is a

common

one with the Pueblo peoples,

and

their earthen vessels oftenresemble it veryclosely,as

shown

in b.

Another

varietyis given

a,Net. b,CIty.

Fig.^47*2.

—

Formoriginating inbasketry

in Fig. 471, a

and

b. These specimens are from southwestern Utah.

Fig. 472, b, illustrates a form quite

common

^{in the Southern} States,a 4

eth

²⁰

450 FORM AND ORNAMENT

IN

CERAMIC

ART.

section in whicb pouch-like nets

and

baskets, a, were formerlyin use

and

in which the pots wereoften modeled.

INVENTION OF FORM.

In theearlystages of art, forms are rarely invented outright and I shall not stop toconsider the subject here.

MODIFICATION OF FORM.

The

acquisition of

new

materials, the development of

new

uses, the

employment

of

new

processes of manufacture,and

many

^{other agencies}

lead to the multiplication of forms through modification.

The

^proc-

esses

by

which highlydifferentiated forms are reached are interesting throughoutand repay theclosest study.

A

preliminaryclassification of the various causes that lead to modi- fication is given in the following synopsis:

Modification offoriu ^.

Bvadventition^.

(Toa

(Tor

assumeform, retain form.

Incapacityofmateria]

Incapacity of the artisan

Changesinmethodofmanufacture.

I'!ian^csofenvironment.

Changesofuse.

Lackof use.

Influence ofnewor exotic forms,etc,

j-Toenhanceusefulness.

Byintention Topleasefancy For thebeautiful.

Forthe grotesque.

MODIFICATION BY ADVENTITION.

Incapacity of^material.

—

^{It is evident} at a glance that clay lacks the capacity to

assume and

to retain

many

of the details of form found in antecedentvessels. Thisnecessarily resultsinthealterationoromission ofthesefeatures,

and

hence arise

many

modifications oforiginalforms.

The

simple lack of capacity on the part of the potter

who

undertook

toreproduce amodel would leadtothe modification ofall butthe most simple shapes.

The

acquisitionof the art by a superioror an inferiorrace,orone of different habits would lead todecided changes.

A

peopleaccustomed

to carryingobjects

upon

the head, on acquiring earthen vessels would shapethe basesand thehandlesto facilitatethis use.

Improvements in the

methods

of manufacture areof the greatestim- portancein the progress of an art.

The

introduction of the lathe, for example, mightalmostrevolutionize form in clay.

As

arts multiply, clayisapplied to

new

uses. Its

employment

in the manufactureoflamps,whistles,ortoyswould leadtoa multitudeofdis- tinctand unique forms.

BOLMEB.]

INFLUENCE OF ASSOCIATED

FORMS.

451 The

acquisition of a

new

vessel-making material

by

a nation of pot- ters

and

the association of the forms developed through its inherent qualities orstructure would often lead ceramic shapes into

new

chan-

nels.

The

contact of a nation of potterswith a nation of carversin

wood

would tend very decidedly to modifythe utensils of the former.

One example may

begiven which will illustrate thepossibilities ofsuch ex- oticinfluences

upon

form. In Fig. 473, a,

we have

an

Alaskan

vessel

c,wood. b, >hi\

Fig.473.—Coincidentforms.

carved in wood. It representsa beaver graspinga stick in its

hands and

teeth.

The

conceptionissounusual

and

thestyleofvessel so char- acteristicof the people that

we

should notexpectto fiuditrepeated in other regions^; buttheancient gravesof the MiddleMississippi Valley have furnisheda

number

ofvery similar vessels in clay,oneofwhich^is outlinedinb.

While

thisremarkablecoincidence^is suggestive of ethnic relationships which donot call for attention here, it servestoillustrate the possibilities of modification

by

simple contact.

A

^{curious example} illustrativeof possible transformation

by

adventi- tiouscircumstances isfound inthe collectionfrom the province of an- cient Tusayan.

A

^{small vessel} of sphynx-like appearance, possibly derived

more

or less remotely from a skin vessel, has a noticeable re-

semblance to

some

life form,Fig. 474,a.

The

^fore-legs are represented

Fig.474.

—

^{Formresulting}fromaccident.

by

two large bosses,the wide-open

mouth

^takes the place of the sev- ered neck,

and

a handle connects the top of the rim with the back ofthe vessel.

The

handle being broken off

and

the vessel inverted,

452

b,there is a decided change;

we

^{are struck} by the resemblanceto a frogortoad.

The

^original legs, having dark concentric lines painted aroundthem, looklikelargeprotrudingeyes,and the

mouth

gapesinthe

most

^{realistic manner, while the two short} broken endsof the handle resemble legs

and

^serve to supportthe vessel in an upright position, completing the illusion.

The

fetich-hunting Pueblo Indian, picking up thislittlevessel in its mutilated condition, would probably atonce giveto it the sacred character of the water animal which itresembles, and it might readily transmit its peculiarities of form to other genera- tions of ^vessels.

Itisnot necessary in this studyto refer at length to theinfluence of metallic vessels

upon

ceramic forms.

They

do not usuallyappear until the ceramic art is far advanced

and

oftenreceive a heritage of shape from earthen forms. Afterwards,

when

the inherent qualities of the metalhave

stamped

their individuality

upon

utensils, the debt ^is paid back toclaywith interest,as will be seen

by

referenceto laterforms in

many

parts of the world.

MODIFICATION BYINTENTION.

To

enhanceusefulness.

—

There can beno doubt that the desire

upon

the partofthearchaicpotter toincrease the usefulness

and

convenience of his utensilshas been an important agentinthe modification of form.

The

^earliestvessels

employed

were oftenclumsy

and

difficulttohandle.

The

favoriteconchshell

would

hold waterfor

him who

wished to drink, butthebreaking

away

of spines

and

the extraction of theinteriorwhorl improved ^it immeasurably.

The

clumsy mortarofstone, with its thick walls and great weight, served auseful purpose, but^it needed a very

little intelligent thought to

show

that thin walls

and

neatly-trimmed margins were

much

preferable.

Vessels of clay,aside from the forms imposed

upon them by

their antecedentsandassociates,"wouldnecessarilybesubjecttochanges sug- gested by the growing needsofman. These would be

worked

out with ever-increasing ease by ^his unfolding genius for invention. Further investigationofthis phase of development

would

carry

me beyond

the limits set forthis paper.

To

pleasefancy.

— ^The

^{skill acquired}

^by

^{the handlingof clay incon-}

structing vessels

and

in efforts to increasetheirusefulness

would

open an expansive^field for the play of fancy.

The

^potterwould no sooner succeed in copying vessels having ^life form than he would be placed in a position to realize hiscapacityto imitateformsnot peculiar to ves- sels. His ambition

would

in time lead

him

even

beyond

thelimits of nature and he

would

invade the realm of imagination,

embodying

the conceptions of superstition in the plastic clay. This tendency would be encouraged

and

perpetuated

by

therelegationofvesselsofparticular formstoparticular ceremonies.

HOLMES.)

ORIGIN OF CERAMIC ORNAMENT. 453

ORIGIN OF ORNAMENT.

The

birtb of the embellishing art

must

be sought iu that stage of animal development

when

instiuct

began

to discover thatcertain attri- butes or adornmentsincreased attractiveness.

When

art in its

human

sense

came

^into existence ideas of embellishment soon extendedfrom theperson,withwhichthey

had

beenassociated, toallthingswithwhich

man had

to deal.

The

processes ofthe growth ofthe aesthetic idea are long

and

obscure

and

cannot be taken

up

in (his place.

The

various elements of embellishment in

which

the ceramic art is interested

may

be assigned to

two

great classes, based

upon

the char- acter ofthe conceptions associated with them. These are ideographic and non-ideographic. In the present paperI shall treat chiefly of tin*

non ideographic, reservingthe ideographicfora second paper.

Elements, non-ideographic from the start, are derived mainly from

two

sources: 1st,from objects, natural orartificial, associated with the arts; and,2d,fromthe suggestions of accidents attending construction.

Natural objects

abound

infeatures highly suggestive ofembellishment

and

these are constantly

employed

in art. Artificial objects

have two

classesoffeaturescapable of givingrisetoornament: these areconstruc- tional

and

functional. Inalate stage of development all things in

na

ture

and

in art,

however

complex orforeign to the art in its practice, are subject todecorativetreatment. Thislatteristhe realisticpictorial stage, one of

which

the student of native

American

^{culture needs} to takelittle cognizance.

Elements of design are not invented outright:

man

modifies, com- bines,

and

recombineselements or ideas already in existence,but does not create.

A

classification ofthesources of decorative, motives

employed

in the ceramic artis given in the following

diagram

^:

Originofornament

.

/Suggestionsoffeaturesof naturalutensilsor objects.

f

Suggestions of features of artificialutensils or objects.

Functional.

rHandles.

JLegs.

]Bands.

yPerforations,etc.

Thecoil.

Theseam.

Constructional •{Thestitch.

ITheplait.

IThetwist,etc.

fMarksotfingers.

Suggestionsln.niaccidents

•[Marksotimplements, attendingconstruction.

[Marksofmolds,etc.

Suggestionsofideographicfeatures or pictorial delineations.

454

SUGGESTIONSOF NATURAL FEATURES OF OBJECTS.

The

first articles used

by men

^{in their} simple ^arts

have

iu

many

cases possessed features suggestive of decoration. Shells of mollusks are exquisitelyembellished with ribs, spines, nodes,

and

colors.

The same

^istruetoa

somewhat

limitedextent of theshells of the turtle

and

the armadillo

and

ofthehard cases offruits.

These ^decorative features, though not essential to the utensil, are nevertheless inseparable parts of it,

and

are cast or unconsciously copied

by

a veryprimitive people

when

similar articles areartificially

producedin plastic material. Inthis

way

a utensil

may

acquireorna- mentalcharacterslong before the

workman

haslearnedtotake pleasure in suchdetails orhas conceived an idea beyond that of simple utility.

This

may

be called unconscious embellishment. In this fortuitous fashion a ribbed variety offruit shell

would

giverise to a ribbed vessel in clay; one covered with spines

would

suggest a

noded

vessel,etc.

When

^taste

came

^to be exercised

upon

such objects these features would be retained

and

copiedfor the pleasure they afforded.

Passing by the

many

simple elements of decoration thatby this un- conscious process could be derived from such sources, let

me

give a single example

by

which itwillbe seen thatnot onlyelementary forms butevensohighly constitutedan

ornament

asthescroll

may

have been brought thus naturally intotherealmof decorative art.

The

sea-shell has always beeuintimately associatedwith theartsthatutilizeclayaud abounds in suggestions of embellishment.

The

Busycon

was

almost universallyemployed as avessel

by

the tribesof the Atlantic drainage of North America. Usuallyit

was trimmed down and

excavated until

a.—Shellvessel 6.—Copy^iuclay

Fig.475.

—

Scrollderivedfromthe spire of aconchshell

only about three-fourths of the outer wall of the shell remained.

At

one end

was

the long spike-likebase which served as a handle,

and

at the other theflat conical apex, with its very pronounced spiral lineor ridge expanding from the center tothe circumference, as seen inFig.

475a. This vessel

was

often copied iu clay, as

many good

examples

now

^iu our

museums

^testify.

The

notable feature is that the shellhas

ORIGIN OF LINEAR ORNAMENT. 455

beeii copied literally, tbe spiralappearing inits properplace.

A

spec- imen ^is illustrated in Fig.475 bwhich,although simple

and

highlycon- ventionalized, still retains the spiral figure.

In another

example we have

fourof the

noded

apexes placed about therim of the vessel, as

shown

ⁱⁿFig. 47C«, the conception beingthat offour conch^shellsunited inonevessel,the basesbeing turned inward and the apexes outward.

Now

^{it is}onlynecessarytosupposethe addi- tion of tbe spiral lines, alwaysassociated with the nodes, to havethe result

shown

in b,

and by

a ^still higherdegreeof convention

we

have

Fig.476.

—

^{Possiblederivationofthecurrentscroll.}

theclassic scroll

ornament

given inc.

Of

course,no such resultasthis could

come

about adventitiously,as successful combinationcallsforthe exerciseof

judgment and

taste^; butthe^initiatorysteps couldbe taken

—

the motivecould enter art

—

without the conscious supervision of the

human

^agent.

SUGGESTIONSBY FEATURESOF ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS.

Functionalfeatures.

—

^Functionalfeatures of art productsliable to in- fluence

ornament

comprise handles, legs, feet, rims, bands,

and

other peculiaritiesofshapeoriginatinginutility. Handles,^forinstance,

may

have beenindigenous to a

number

of arts; they are coeval

and

coex- tensivewith culture.

The

^{first load,} weapon, orvessel transported

by man may

have beensuspended

by

a vine orfilament.

Such

artsas

have

fallenheir to handleshave used

them

accordingto the capacities of the material employed.

Of

^all the materials stone is probablythe least suited to theirsuccessful use,while clay utilizes

them

in its

own

peculiar

Fig.477.

—

Ornamentderivedthroughthemodification of handles.

way,giving to

them

a great variety of expression.

They

arecopiedin clayfrom various models,but

owing

totheinadequate capacitiesof the material, often lose theirfunction

and

degenerateinto

mere

ornaments, which are modified assuch ^{to please} the potter's fancy. Thus, forex- ample, theseriesofhandlesplacedabout theneckofthevesselbecome,

by

modificationin frequent*copying,a mere

band

^ofornamental figures in relief, or even finally in engraved, punctured, or paintedlines, inthe

manner

suggestedinFig. 477. Legs,pedestals, spouts, and otherfeat- ures

may

^{in alike}

manner

give riseto decoration.

Constructional features.

—

^{Features of vesselsresultingfrom construc-}

tion are infinitely varied

and

often highly suggestive of decoration.

Constructional peculiarities of the clay utensils themselves are espe- cially worthy of notice, and on account of theiractual presence in the art itself are

more

likely to be utilizedorcopied for ceramic ornament thanthoseofothermaterials.

The

^coil,souniversallyemployed incon- struction, has

had

adecided influence

upon

the ceramic decoration of certain peoples, as I have

shown

in a paper on ancient Pueblo art.

From

^it

we

have notonly a great variety of surfaceornamentation pro- duced

by

simple treatment of the coil in place, but probably

many

formssuggestedbythe useofthecoilin vessel building,«s, for instance, thespiral formed in beginning the base of acoiled vessel, Fig. 478a,

a.—Coiledfilletofclay. 6.—Doublecoil.

Fig.478.

—

^{Scrollderived}fromcoilofclay.

from which the double scroll b,as a separate feature, could readily be derived,and ^finallythechain ofscrolls sooften seenin borderand zone decoration. This familiarity with the use of fillets or ropes of clay would also lead to a great variety of applied ornament, examplesof which, from Pueblo art, are given in Fig. 479.

The

sinuous forms as-

Fici. 479.—Ornamental nseoffillets.

sumed

by a rope of clay so

employed

would readily suggest to the Indian theformof the serpent

and

the

means

of representing it, and might thus lead tothe introduction of this

much

revered creatureinto art.

Of

the variousclassesofuteusilsassociatedclosely with theceramic

art,thereare noneso characteristically

marked

by constructional feat-

holmes.] ORIGIN

OF ORNAMENT. 457

ures as nets

and

wickerbaskets.

The

twisting, interlacing,knotting,

and

stitchingoffilamentsgive relieved figures that

by

contactin

man-

ufacture impress themselves

upon

the plastic clay.

Such

impressions

come

intime to be regarded as pleasing features, and

when

free-hand

methods

of reproducing arefinally acquired they and theirderivatives

become

essentials of decoration.

At

a later stage these characters of basketryinfluenceceramicdecorationina

somewhat

^differentway.

By

the use of variously-colored fillets the

woven

surface displays figures in colorcorresponding to thosein relief

and

varying with every

new

com- bination.

Many

striking patterns are thus produced,

and

the potter

who

has learned to decorate his wares

by

the stylus or brush repro- duces these patterns

by

free-hand methods.

We

^{find pottery in all}

countries

ornamented

with patterns,painted, incised, stamped,

and

re- lieved, certainly derived from this source. So well is this fact

known

that I need hardlygo intodetails.

In the higher stages of art the constructional characters of architec- ture giveriseto

many

notions of decoration which afterwards descend to otherarts, takinggreatly divergent forms. Aboriginal architecture in

some

parts of

America had

reached a development capableof wield- ing a strong ^influence. This is not true, however,of any part of the United States.

SUGGESTIONS OFACCIDENTS.

Besides the suggestions of surface features impressed in manufac- tureorintentionallycopied as indicated above,

we have

^alsothose ofac- cidentalimprints ofimplementsor ofthefingers in manufacture.

From

this source there are necessarily

many

suggestions ofornament,at first of indented figures, butlater, afterlongemployment, extendingtothe other

modes

ofrepresentation.

IDEOGRAPHIC AND PICTORIAL SUBJECTS.

Non-ideographicformsof

ornament may

originate in ideographic feat- ures,

mnemonic,

demonstrative, or symbolic.

Such

significant figures areborrowed

by

decorators from other branches of art.

As

time goes on they lose their significance

and

are subsequently treated as purely decorative elements. Subjectswhollypictorial in character,

when

such

come

to bemade,

may

also be used as simple decoration, and by long processes of convention

become

geometric.

The

exact

amount

of significancestill attached to significant figures after adoptionintodecorationcannot be determined except in cases of actual identification

by

living peoples,

and

even

when

the significationis

known by

the

more

learned individuals the decorator

may

^{be wholly}

without

knowledge

of it.

458 FORM AND

MODIFICATION OF ORNAMENT.

Thereare comparativelyfew elementaryideas prominently and gen- erallyemployed in primitive decorative art.

New

ideas are acquired, as alreadyshown, all along the

pathway

of progress.

None

of these ideas retain a uniformexpression, however,as they aresubjectto modi- fication by environmentjust as arethe forms of living organisms.

A

brief classificationof the causes of modification isgivenin the follow- ing synopsis:

rThroughmaterial.

Modification ofornament <Throughform.

1Through methodsof realization.

Through material.

—

^{Itisevidentata}glance that material

must

havea strong influence

upon

the forms

assumed by

the various decorative motives,

however

derived.

Thus

stone, clay, wood, bone,

and

copper, although theyreadily borrow from nature

and

from eachother,necessa- rily

show

differentdecorativeresults. Stoneis massive

and

takes form slowlyand

by

peculiarprocesses. Clayis

more

versatile

and

decoration

may

bescratched, incised, painted, or modeled in relief with equalfa- cility,while

wood

and metalengenderdetailshavingcharacterspeculiar tothemselves, producingdifferent results from the

same

motivesorele-

ments.

Much

ofthe diversitydisplayed bytheartproducts ofdifferent countries and climates is dueto this cause.

Peoples dwellingin arcticclimates are limited, by ^their materials, to particular

modes

^of expression.

Bone

and ivory asshaped foruse in the arts of subsistence afford facilities for the

employment

of a very restricted class of lineardecoration, such chiefly⁷ as could be scratched with ahard point upon small irregular, often cylindrical, implements.

Skins

and

other animal tissues are not favorable tothedevelopment of ornament, and the textile arts

—

the greatest agents of convention

—

^do

notreadily find suitablematerials inwhich towork.

Decorativeart carried to ahigh stageunder^arcticenvironment would be

more

likely to achieve unconventional and realistic forms than if

developed in

more

highly favored countries.

The

accurate geometric

and

^linearpatternswould hardlyarise.

Through _form.

— ^Forms

^{of decorated} objects exercise astrong ^influ- ence

upon

the decorativedesignsemployed. Itwould be

more

difficult to tattoothe

human

face or

body

with straight lines orrectilinearpat- terns thanwith curvedones.

An

ornament appliedoriginally⁷to aves- sel ofagivenform would

accommodate

itselfto thatform pretty

much

as costume becomes adjusted to the individual.

When

^it

came

^tobe required for another form of vessel, very decided changes might be necessary.

With

the ancient Pueblo peoples rectilinearforms of

meander

pat- terns werevery

much

^{in favor}

and many

earthenvessels arefound in

holmes.]

MODIFICATION OF LINEAR ORNAMENT. 459

which baudsofbeautifulaugulargeometricfiguresoccupythe peripheral zone, Fig. 480a, but

when

the artist takes

up

a

mug

having a

row

of hemispherical nodes aboutthe body,b, hefindsitverydifficult to apply his favoriteformsand isalmostcompelled torun spiral curvesaboutthe nodesin orderto secure a neat adjustment.

a b

FIG.4£0.

—

^Variationsina motive throughthe influenceofform.

Throm/h _{methods of}realization.

—

^{It willreadily be}seen that theforms

assumed by

amotive

depend

greatly

upon

the character ofthe mechan-

ical devices employed. In thepotter'sartdevices for holding

and

turn- ing the vessel under manipulation produce peculiarresults.

In applying a given idea to clay

much

depends

upon

the

method

of executing it. It will take widely differing forms

when

executed

by

in- cising,

by

modeling,

by

painting,

and by

stamping.

Intimately associated with

methods

of execution are peculiaritiesof construction, the

two

agencies working together in the processes of modification

and

developmentofornament.

I have previously

shown how

ourfavorite ornament, the scroll,in its

disconnected form

may

haveoriginated in thecopying^{of natural} forms or through the manipulation of coils of clay. I present here an ex-

ample

of its possible origin through the modification of forms derived from constructional features of basketry.

An ornament known

asthe guillocheis found in

many

countries.

The

combination of linesresem- bles that of twistedorplatted filletsofwood,cane, or rushes, as

may

be seen at a glance, Fig. 481 a.

An

^incised

ornament

of this character, possiblyderived from basketry

by

copying the twisted fillets or their impressions in theclay, is very

common

on the pottery of the

mounds

ofthe Mississippi Valley,

and

itsvariantsformamostinterestingstudy.

In applyingthis toavesselthecareless artist does not properlyconnect theendsofthelineswhichpass beneath the intersectingfillets,and the parts

become

disconnected, ^h. In

many

cases the ends are turned in abruptly as seen in c,

and

only a slight furtherchange is necessary to lead to the result,d, the running scroll with well-developed links. All of these steps

may

be observed ina single group ofvessels.

It

may

be thought

by some

that the processes ofdevelopment indi- catedabove are insufficient

and

unsatisfactory. There are those who,

460 FORM AND CERAMIC

seeing these forms already

endowed

with symbolism, begin at

what

I conceivetobe the

wrong

end of the process.

They

derive the form of symbol^directly fromthe thing symbolized.

Thus

the currentscroll^is, with

many

^races,found to be a symbolofwater,

and

its origin is attrib- utedtoaliteralrenditionofthesweep andcurlofthewaves. Itis

more

probable that the^scroll

became

the symbolof the sealongafter itsde-

velopment through agencies similar tothose described above,

and

that the association resultedfromtheobservationof incidentalresemblances.

Tbis

same

figure, inuse

by

the Indians ofthe interiorofthe continent, is regarded as symbolic of the whirlwind,

and

it is probable that any symbol-using people will find in the features and

phenomena

of their environment,whateverit

may

be, sufficientresemblance to anyof their decorative devicestolead toa symbolicassociation.

Fig. 481.

—

Theoreticaldevelopmentofthecurrentscroll.

One

secretof modificationisfoundintheuse of aradical in

more

than oneart,

owing

to differences in constructional characters.

For

exam-

ple, the tendency of nearlyall

woven

fabrics is toencourage, even to compel, the use of straight lines in tlie decorative designs applied.

Thus

the attempt to employ curved lines would lead to stepped or brokenlines..

The

curvilinearscroll

coming

from

some

other artwould beforced

by

the constructionalcharacter of thefabricintosquare forms, and the rectilinear

meander

or fret would result, as

shown

in Fig. 4S2, a being theplain form, painted, engraved, or iu relief,

and

b the

same

idea developed ina

woven

fabric. Stoneorbrick-

work

would lead to likeresults, Fig.483; but the modificationcould asreadily

move

in the

holmes.)

MODIFICATION OF ORNAMENT THROUGH TECHNIQUE. 461

otherdirection. Ifan

ornament

originating in the constructionalchar- acterof a

woven

fabric,orremodeled by^it,and hencerectilinear,should be desired for a smoothstructureless or featureless surface,thedifficul-

ty,free-hand form. b,form imposedbyfabric.

Fig. 4-2—Formsof thesamemotive expressedindifferentarts.

ties of

drawing

the angular forms would lead to the delineation of curved forms,

and we

would have exactly the reverse of the order

shown

in Figs.482

and

483.

The two

forms givenin Fig. 484actually

462 FORM AND CERAMIC

when

a similar idea derived from basketry (as it could have noother origin)isexecuted incolor

upon

an earthen vessel,

we

observe a tend- encytodepartfrom

symmetry

aswellasfromconsistency. I callatteu-

Fig. 485.

—

Geometric formof textileornament.

tiou here to the arrangement of the parts merely, not to the motives employed, as I

happen

to

have

no examples of identical figuresfrom the twoarts.

Fig.486.

—

Loss of geometric accuracyinpainting.

It will be seen by reference to the design given in Fig. 480, taken from the upper surfaceof an ancient vase, that althoughthe spirit of the decoration is wonderfully well preserved the idea of theorigin of

all the rays in the center of the vessel isnot kept in view,

and

that

by

MODIFICATION OF TEXTILE

DESIGNS.

463

carelessness in the drawing

two

of tbe rays are

crowded

out and ter-

minate against tbe sideof a neighboring ray. In copying

and

recopy- ing

by

freehand methods,

many

curious modifications take place in these designs, as, for example, the unconformity which occurs in one placeinthe

example

given

may

occurata

number

ofplaces,

and

there will be a series of independent sections, a small

number

only of the bands ofdevices remainingtrue rays.

A

characteristicpainted design from the^interior of an ancient

bowl

is

shown

in Fig. 487, in which merely a suggestion of the radiation is

preserved, although the figure is still decorative

and

tasteful. This process of modification goes on withoutend,

and

as thetrue geometric

1'IG. 487.

—

Design painteduponpottery.

textileforms recede from viewinnovation robs the design of all traces of itsoriginalcharacter,producing

much

^thatisincongruous

and

unsat- isfactory.

The

growth of decorative devices from the elementary tothe highly constituted

and

elegantis

owing

to a tendency of the

human mind

to elaboratebecause ^it is pleasant to do soorbecausepleasure is taken in the result, but there is still a directing

and

shaping agency tobeac- countedfor.

Ihave already

shown

that such figures as thescroll

and

the guilloche arenotnecessarily developed

by

processes of selection

and

combination of simple elements, as

many

have thought, since they

may have come

into art at a veryearly stage almost full-fledged; butthere is nothing

inthese facts tothrowlightupon the processes

by

which

ornament

fol-

lowed particular lines ofdevelopment throughout endless elaboration^

In treating of this point, Prof. C. F. Ilartt² maintainedthat the devel-

opment

of ornamental designs took particular

and

uniform directions

owing

to the structure of the eye, certain forms being chosen and per- petuated becauseof the pleasure afforded

by movements

of theeyein following them. In connection with this hypothesis, forit is nothing more, Mr. Hartt advanced the additional idea, that in unison with

'Hartt^: PopularScienceMonthly, Vol.VI, p.266.

464

the general course of nature decorative forms

began

with simpleele-

ments and developed by systematic

methods

to complexforms.

Take

for example the series of designs

shown

in Fig. 488.

The meander

a

made up

of simple parts would, accordingto Mr.Hartt.byfurther elab- orationunder the supervision ofthe musclesof theeye, develop into b.

This,intime, intoc,

and

soonuntiltheelegant

anthemium was

achieved.

The

series

shown

ⁱⁿFig.489woulddevelopinasimilarway,orotherwise wouldbeproducedbymodificationinfree-handcopvingoftherectilinear

ITLnJISlTi

b

[MfflW M^MMMS

Fig.^488.

—

Theoreticaldevelopmentoffretwork.

series.

The

processes here suggested,although to allappearancesrea- sonableenough, should not bepassed over withoutcareful scrutiny.

Takingthefirstseries,

we

observe that theornamentsare projectedin straightcontinuous lines orzones, whicharefilled inwith

more

or less

complex parts, rectilinear and geometrically accurate. Still higher formsaremarvelouslyintricate

and

graceful,yet notlessgeometricand symmetrical.

Let us turn to the primitive artisan,

and

observe him at

work

with rude brush

and

stylus

upon

the rounded and irregular forms of his