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THE STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH TEXTS
Unity of Texture
The individual parts of a text – the sentences and clauses in it – must also be linked together.
Thematic Structure
In the second example, the theme shifts to The dog and the rheme is everything again. So this is old information because its reference, Stanhope Hall, appears in the first sentence.
Markers of Cohesion
In the first example, predication substitutes generate most of our money supply. For example, in the second paragraph the Democratic presidential candidates are mentioned as the eight contenders.
PHONETICS
- Voiced and Voiceless Sounds
- Place of Articulation
- Bilabials
- Labiodentals
- Dentals
- Alveolars
- Palatals
- Velars
- Glottals
- Manner of articulation
- Stops
- Fricatives
- Affricates
- Nasals
- Liquids
- Glides
- Vowels
The initial sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds of the words safe and save are labiodentals. This sound is found in the pronunciation of the initial sound of common words such as the, there, then and so.
THE SOUND PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE
Definition of the Sound Pattern of Language
- Phonology
- Phonemes
- Phones and Allophones
- Minimal Pairs and Sets
- Phonotactics
- Syllables
- Consonant Clusters
- Coarticulation Effects
For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air than the [t] sound in the word star. In the pronunciation of a word like eighth (/etθ/), the influence of the final dental [θ] sound causes a dental articulation of the [t] sound.
Types of Coarticulation Effects
- Assimilation
- Elision
- Normal Speech
This term, which literally means "the study of forms", was originally used in biology, but since the mid-nineteenth century has done so. For example, we say that the verb love "agrees with" the noun Cathy in the sentence Cathy loves her dog.
MORPHOLOGY
Morphology
In many languages, what appear to be single forms actually turn out to contain a large number of "word-like" elements. Perhaps a better way to look at linguistic forms in different languages would be to use this notion of "elements" in the message, rather than depending only on the identification of "words". The type of exercise we have just carried out is an example of investigating basic forms in language, commonly known as morphology.
Morphemes
- Free and Bound Morphemes
- Lexical and Functional Morphemes
- Derivational and Inflectional Morphemes
This set largely consists of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. In the first sentence, both inflections (-s, -s) are attached to nouns, one is possessive and the other is plural.
Morphological Description
One is the loudest person in the house and the other is quieter than a mouse. A handy way to remember all these different types of morphemes is in the following chart.
Problems in Morphological Description
Child's wilderness functional lexical inflectional lexical derived lexical -ed the teach-er-s inflectional functional lexical derived inflectional. Consequently, a full description of English morphology will have to take into account both historical influences and the effect of borrowed elements.
Morphs and Allomorphs
Other Languages
- Kanuri
- Ganda
- Ilocano
- Tagalog
The kind of noun that can be the subject of the verb at must denote an entity capable of 'eating'. The noun hamburger does not have this property and the noun boy does. For example, if we are asked the meaning of the word hide, we can simply say, "It is the same as hide," or give the meaning of shallow as "the opposite of deep," or the meaning of daffodil as.
GRAMMAR
Grammar
The luck -y son -'s functional lexical derivation lexical inflection With these descriptions we can characterize all the words and phrases of a language in terms of their phonology and morphology. The process of describing the structure of phrases and sentences in such a way that we account for all the grammatical sequences in a language and exclude all the ungrammatical sequences is one way of defining grammar.
Traditional Grammar
This is the kind of definition we assume when we talk about the grammar of English as opposed to the grammar of Swahili, Tagalog, or Turkish. As shown in Chapter 6, each of these languages has different ways of forming grammatical phrases and sentences.
The Parts of Speech
Adjectives are words that are usually used with nouns to provide more information about things (happy people, great objects, a strange experience). Adverbs are words used, usually with verbs, to provide more information about actions, states and events (slowly, yesterday).
Agreement
Prepositions are words (at, in, on, near, with, without) used with nouns in sentences that give information about time (5 o'clock, in the morning), place (on the table, near the window) and other conjunctions (with a knife, without a thought) involves actions and things. Pronouns are words (she, herself, they, it, you) used in place of nouns that typically refer to people and things that are already known (she is talking to herself. They said it belonged to you) .
Grammatical Gender
In this case, the verb love is in the present tense, which is different from the noun. The sentence is also in the active voice, which describes what Cathy is doing (i.e. she is performing the action of the verb).
Traditional Analysis
The Prescriptive Approach
Following these types of rules, traditional teachers would correct sentences like Who did you go with? who did you go with making sure the preposition with was not at the end of the sentence). And Me and my family should definitely be addressed to My family and I, which Ann Landers would recommend.
Captain Kirk’s infinitive
- The Descriptive Approach
Structural Analysis
There are many forms that can fit into these slots to produce good grammatical sentences in English (eg car, child, donkey, dog, radio). As a result, we can suggest that because all these forms fit into the same test frame, they are probably examples of the same grammatical category.
Constituent Analysis
Labeled and Bracketed Sentences
Gaelic Sentences
Discussion Topics/Projects
In our example sentence, one role is taken by the noun phrase Boy as "the entity that performs the action," technically known as an agent. Note that the following text has conjunctions such as Lincoln - car, red - this color, she - her, letters - letter, and so on.
THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE
Structure Dependency
Note that the tense, past or present, of the V (eg helped) in the active structure determines the tense of being in the passive structure (eg was helped). Which of the following active sentences can be restructured into passive sentences using this rule.
Syntax
In traditional grammar, the first is called an active sentence, which focuses on what Charlie did, and the second is a passive sentence, which focuses on The window and what happened to it. That same deep structure can be the source of many other surface structures such as It was Charlie who broke the window and Did Charlie break the window?.
Structural ambiguity
This other “underlying” level, where the basic components (NounPhrase + Verb + Noun Phrase) shared by the two sentences can be represented, is called their deep structure. The underlying interpretation can be 'little boys and (little) girls' or 'little boys and (all) girls'. Our syntactic analysis should be able to demonstrate the structural distinction between these underlying representations.
Recursion
Tree Diagrams
This type of hierarchical organization can be illustrated in a tree diagram for an entire sentence beginning with S at the top.
Symbols Used in Syntactic Analysis
Phrase Structure Rules
We can use the rules of phrase structure to represent the tree diagram information in another form. This means that the information shown in the tree diagram on the left can be expressed in the phrase structure rule on the right.
Lexical Rules
- Back to Recursion
For example, in the second sentence (Cathy knew ...), we can identify a CP which contains that plus Mary helped George. This means that we are using the CP as part of a verb phrase (VP), as she knew that Mary helped George.
SEMANTICS
Semantics
- Meaning
- Semantic Features
- Semantic Roles
- Agent and Theme
- Instrument and Experiencer
- Location, Source, and Goal
- Lexical Relations
- Synonymy
- Antonymy
- Hyponymy
- Prototypes
- Homophones and Homonyms
- Polysemy
- Word Play
In the sentence The boy is sad, the experiencer (Boy) has the only meaningful role. When the meaning of one form is involved in the meaning of another, the relationship is described as hyponymy.
Metonymy
One study looked at 84 occurrences of the phrase true feelings in a corpus (only a small sample is shown here). In the next chapter we will look at other aspects of the role of context.
PRAGMATICS
- Pragmatics
- Context
- Deixis
- Reference
- Inference
- Anaphora
- Presupposition
- Speech Art
- Direct and Indirect Speech Acts
- Politeness
- Negative and Positive Face
Although this may seem quite obvious, we must bear in mind that it is not the actual physical situation "out there" that constitutes "the context" for the interpretation of words or sentences. We sometimes assume that these words uniquely identify someone or something, but it is more accurate to say that for each word or phrase there is a "reference range". The words Jennifer or friend or she can be used to refer to many entities in the world.
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
Discourse Analysis
In many of the previous chapters, when we focused on linguistic description, we were concerned with the precise representation of forms and structures. However, as language users, we are able to recognize more than just correct versus incorrect forms and structure. We can come across snippets in newspaper headlines such as Trains crash, two die, and we know that what happened in the first half was the cause. about what happened in the second half.
Interpreting Discourse
Cohesion
It has also been noted that the conventions of coherent structure differ from one language to the next and can be one of the sources of problems encountered in translating texts. It becomes clear from this type of example that the "connectedness" we experience in our interpretation of normal texts is not simply based on connections between the words.
Coherence
In doing so, you would necessarily be involved in a process of filling in the many gaps that exist in the text. If this is a reasonable analysis of what happened in the conversation, then it is clear that language users must have a lot of knowledge about how conversation works that is not just "linguistic" knowledge.
Speech Events
They do use the information contained in the expressed sentences, but something else must be involved in the interpretation. Based on concepts derived from the study of speech acts (introduced in Chapter 10), we can characterize the short conversation in the following way.
Conversation Analysis
To describe the sources of that variation, we would have to take a number of criteria into account. We should describe what the topic of conversation was and in what setting it took place.
Turn-taking
The Co-operative Principle
- Hedges
Hedges can be defined as words or phrases used to indicate that we are not really sure that what we are saying is sufficiently correct or complete. We also take care to indicate that what we report is something we believe or feel (don't know), is possible or likely (not certain), and may or could (may not) happen.
Implicatures
Since Lara's original answer contains important information, Carol can work on that "exam tomorrow." Investigating how we use our background knowledge to arrive at interpretations of what we hear and read is a critical part of discourse analysis.
Background Knowledge
It is noteworthy that in order to describe the conversational implicature involved in Lara's statement, we had to appeal to some background knowledge (about the exam, studies and party) that must be shared by the interviewees. That is, we actually create what the text is about, based on our expectations of what normally happens.
Schemas and Scripts
Story (2003) Laboratory Manual for Morphology and Syntax (7th ed.). 2002) English Corpus Linguistics Cambridge University Press Stubbs, M. Spencer (2009) Linguistics: An Introduction (chapter 12) (2nd edition) Cambridge University Press. 2000) English phonetics and phonology (3rd ed.) Cambridge University Press.