The Toner lectures. Instituted to encourage the discovery of new truths for the advancement of medicine. Lecture 8. Suggestions for the sanitary drainage of Washington city

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.

349

THE TONER LECTURES

INSTITUTED TO ENCOURAGE THE DISCOVERY OF

NEW

TRUTHS FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT

OF MEDICINE.

Lecture VI L

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SANITARY DRAINAGE OF WASHINGTON ^CITY.

G-EOR&E E. -VirAJRlN&,

Jr.,

OFNEWPORT,E.I.

DELIVERED

MAY

26, 1880.

WASHINGTON

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

JUNE,

^1880.

ADVERTISEMENT,

The "Toner

Lectures" have been instituted at Washington,

T).

C, by

Joseph

M.

Toner,

M.

D.,

who

has placed in chargeof a

Board

of Trustees, consistingof the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,the Surgeon-General of the United States Array, the Surgeon-General of the United States

Navy,

and the President of the Medical Society of the Districtof Columbia, a fund, ^"the interestof whichis tobe applied for at least two annual memoirs oressays relative to

some

branchofmedicalscience,

and

containing

some new

truth fullyestablished

by

experimentor observation."

As

these lecturesare intendedto increase

and

diffuse knowledge, they have been accepted for publication

by

the Smithsonian Insti- tution in its "Miscellaneous Collections."

SPENCEE

F.

BAIKD,

SecretarySmithsonianInstitution.

Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, June, 1880.

(iii^

LECTURE VIII.

Delivered May26, 1880.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE SANITARY DRAINAGE OF WASH- INGTON CITY.

By George

E. "Waring, Jr.,of Newport, R. I.

Washington

is sometimes called our official metropolis.

One

wlio reads the floodof reports which have been made, fromtime totime, concerning its drainage,

must

feel inclined to call it the metropolis of sanitary advice.

Every

one

who

has

had

to do with

any

branch of engineeringwhich has even an indirect bear- ing

upon

sanitary improvement, seems to have been called

upon

atonetime or another toexpress an opinion concerning theintri- cateproblems here presented,until it has

come

to be a matterof course,that sooner or later,every

member

of the profession

must

prepare a thesisonthe "Washington Sewers

and

theKidwellFlats.

That

duty, or rather thatprivilege,

now

falls to

my

lot,

and

Iask yourattentionto afew suggestionswhich seem to

me

appropriate.

The

essential elements ofa healthful condition of soil and sur- roundings arevery simple. Here, aseverywhere, a dry

and

clean soil beneathus,

and

dry

and

clean air about us,are the primary conditions of awholesomelife.

Where

these have not been provided

by

Nature, they

must

be established

by

Art. Washington, like other places, was adopted asthe suefora city for reasons

among

whichsanitary advantages

had

no conspicuous place. It has

grown

to be a great capital without referenceto these sanitaryadvantages

—

^{indeed largely in}

1

(1)

2

THE TONER LECTURES.

spiteof theirabsence, butto secure

them

isnow, from ourpointof view,its most importantand.mostpressingduty.

Itneedsbuta casual survey and slightconsideration tosee that thedifficulties tobe overcomearequite distinctly marked.

Aside from the heavy rainfall to which the locality is subject, it lies across the outlets of a wide outlying drainagearea, whose storm-waters pour

upon

itin torrents.

Much

of the cityislevel,

and

its heavysoil at differentpoints retainsmoisture almost tothe point ofsaturation.

A

largepart of its arealies so neartothe level of tidewater as toprevent satisfactorydrainage evenwerethe soil

more

porous.

Incidentaltothe elevation

and

totheconformation ofitssurface, the obstacles tothefree

and

completeremoval of its natural waters have servedalso as obstacles to the removal of its artificial pollu- tion.

The

waste incident to

human

life constitutes here as else- where, amost dangerous elementof a problem whose solution is

the sanitary engineer's chief task. Thereare difficulties in

Wash-

ington which do not obtain to the

same

degree in higher-lying towns.

The

rivers

by

w^hich your borders are swept, in addition to the degreeto whichtheir shoal shores prevent the requisite drainage of the city,accumulatedeposits which,exposed at low tide,maintain in 3'^our immediate neighborhooda most prejudicial decomposition of organic matter fouled by the outflow of the sewers.

The

emanations from this decomposition in such close proximity to the heart of the city are a recognized

and

palpable source of ill-

health which hasattracted the attentionofall

who

havediscussed the subject.

The

first of the difficulties referredto,

—

^{the pouringof torrents}

of storm-waterfrom the outlying countryinto the city,

—

^is

^now

receiving at the hands of the engineering authorities of the District, such complete

and

adequate treatment, that it is un- necessary to consider it here. It need no longer be regarded in

SANITARY 6

discussing the general question.

The

removal of this waterwith- out injury to property

and

without materially increasing the saturation of the soil is

now

being perfected in a

manner which

leavesnothing tobe desii'ed.

Sofar as the remainingelements of the problem

come

within the

domain

of engineering art,

what we

have to consider is a system of improvements which shall,first, turn the pestiferous river ^flats and

swampy

shore intodry

and

wholesome earth; second, dry the soil; and, third, properly

remove

its foul sewage.

Proper outside conditions being secured,it will remain togive such attention to the defective interior

and

exterior drainage of housesas will

remove

the present

menace

to health

and

lifefrom thatfertilesource.

These improvements being completed, Washington, with its

generallyundulatingsurface,its most thoroughventilation

by

wide

streets,

and

itsexcellent municipalcontrol,woulddoubtless

become

thehealthiest, as it isalready themostbeautiful, of the large cities of the country.

While

it is easytoformulate the required improvements, their proper execution

must

involve the most careful consideration,

and

to perfect thedetails of a comprehensive scheme adequateto secure

them

^{all,is far}beyond the limits of an eveninglecture. All that I proposeistogivean outline of the

manner

in which Ithink the desiredresults

may

be secured, that you

may

^{consider whetheror}

not themostdesirableend wouldjustifythe necessary means.

In carrying^out,

and

even in suggesting, a project for improve- ment, there^is oneobstacleof an artificial characterwhichis

more

important thanat^first sight'itappears to be.

Human

nature is alike the world over,

and

the tendency to

make

use of existing works, to adopt make-shifts,

and

to avoid the condemnation of costly improvementsisuniversal.

So faras the removal of thehousehold drainage of

Washington

isconcerned, the sewers constructed for this purpose are

—

^perhaps

by

no

means

always or generally

—

but they are very^largely, un-

4 THE TONER

LECTURES.

suited tothe bestperformauceofthis duty. In the

recommenda-

tions that I shall lay before you, I shall for convenience

and

^for

simplicity,andforreasonswhichAvill

become

^obviousas

we

proceed, assume that.the larger of the present sewers of

Washington

are valuable only for the removal of storm-Avater from the roofs of houses,

and

from the surface of the ground,

and

thatthe systemfor carrying

away

house drainage, manufacturing wastes,etc., must be verythoroughlyrevised

and

amended. In thedevelopmentof the detailsof a w^orkingplan,itwouldrest with theprojectorto deter-

mine

to

what

degree the present sewers could be

made

useful for this purpose. Iimagine that,the question of cost beingsetaside, they would be

much

less generallyused than would

now

besup- posed;andthatthe

more

thesubject^isstudied,the

more

^important,

and

in thelong run the

more

economical, itwill seem to relegate the question of costtoa very secondary^position.

Work now

being doneshould have in viewthe establishment of aperfectsanitary condition throughout thewhole city, which will remain effectfve for alltime.

When we

consider what

Washington

is,

and

isalwaysto be, noquestion of costisworth consideration as

compared

with absolute and permanent healthfulness.

Economy

being regardedin its larger sense, merecheapness hasnoplace-

To

consider,first, the fundamental difficulties of shore

and

low- level outlets, it seems to

me

that the exampleof Holland points the

way

to their easy

and

complete ^solution. Following the ex-

ample

of that remarkable country,

we

need try no experiments,

and we

need invent no

new

processes.

We

^{see thereexecuted,}

—

on a scalewhich

makes

the

Washington work

seem insignificant,

and

with a complete development of all details,

—

^{a well formu-}

lated system forsecuringan absolutelygood

and

permanent result.

It is not a little remarkable that the

Dutch

systemofartificial drainage, which has been equivalent to filling in the whole low country toa depth of fromfive to twenty feet; which hasbeenin operationfromimmemorial time; whichhas reclaimedfromthesea

SANITARY DRAINAGE

nearly a million acres; and which has alwaysexcited the interest

and

admiration of the restof the world, should have remained so exclusively Dutch.

The method

has crossed the

North

Sea

and

invaded the Lincolnshire fens, and it has travelled a little

way

along the

German and

Danishcoasts; but,with rare exceptions, other countries have adopteditonly in an extremelytentative

and

ineffectual way.

The

great success of these works in Holland seemsto have beenascribed to

some

mysterious peculiarity of the nature of the

Dutch

people.

But

water has the

same

weight there that it has here,

and

windmills

and

steam-engines have the

same

power here that theyhave there. Mechanical forces undergo no change

by

exportation,

and

thereisno other reasonthan confirmed habitwhich leadsus so generally toadopt the costly wheelbarrow

and

cart, wherethe

Dutchman

woulduse the cheaper

pump.

There is no doubt that the

Potomac

^flats might be rendered healthful

and

valuable

by

being filled, in the

manner and

to the depththat has beensuggested, with fresh upland earth; butthere

isno special advantage insuchan elevation of thisterritorywhich

may

not be equally^Avell secured

by

the suflScientlowering of the ground water of that area,

and

in one respect there is a disad- vantage.

Three hundred years ago all of

Holland

west of

Amsterdam and

north of

Rotterdam

was aseries of lakes

and

swamps, divided

by

narrow stretchesof half-drainedland,

and

protected againstthe

North

Sea

by

the sand dunes along the coast. To-day, in that wholearea there isonlysufficientwaterleftforinteriornavigation.

Nearlythreehundredyears ago theBeemster

Lake

of 16,000acres wasdrained to a depth of nearly 20 feet,

and

it has ever since remained one of the most fertile districts of the earth. Thirty years ago

Haarlem

Lake, covering 44,000 acres, was brought to the

same

condition; andit is in contemplationto add to thedry land of the

kingdom

480,000 acres

now

covered by the Zuider Zee.

Many

of thereclaimed districts lie along the banks of the Rhine,which offers dangei-s

and

difficulties with which those of

b

TUE TONER

LECTURES.

the

Potomac

can bearno comparison; while the original cost of the

work

isvastlygreater than would be thatofa similar recla- mation of the Kidwell Bottems

and

the Anacostia Flats. In Holland where the reclamations during thiswhole century have averaged about 4,000 acres a year, the motive for undertaking these workshas been almostsolelyto secure land for agricultural use; the motive hei'e, where it is necessary to reclaim not

more

than 2,B00acres,is one

compared

with which any economical use

isinsignificant.

The

projects of

Major

Twining, Engineer Commissioner of the District,

and

of the

Board

ofSurvey of 1872, indicate the neces- sary

means

for the enclosure of the

Potomac

Flats,

and

suggest a similar treatment along the Anacostia, mostof the area enclosed to be filled with eartli,so that the whole of it, except

some

lakes

and

ponds, shall

become

solid,dry ground, not

much

below the level of thelowerparts of thecity.

The Dutch method

would betoconstructcorrespondingdefences, earth embankments,protected bulk-heads, or otherwise; to leave the enclosed groundatits presentlevel,and todrain it

by

artificial

powertoa sufficientdepth to secure the

same

^resultasto dryness that would be secured

by

thefillingwhich has been recommended, Ihave no hesitation in suggesting the adoption of the latter method.

The

soil of theKidwellBottomsneedsonlytobe drained to become,underatmospheric action, in allrespects asgoodfor

any

use towhich it

may

be desirable to put it,as

any

other dry and solid ground.

For

all practical purposes, the diflference of level isnot of the leastconsequence,especially as the wholearea would probably bedevotedtotheusesofa public park.

The

effect would besimplytosubstitute a dry

and

pleasant

meadow

forthe present noisome

mud

flats.

The

projectmightinclude a channel along the

Potomac

water front of the city below the public grounds, as at present; and a rectification of the

main

channel of the

Potomac and

of the chan- nelof theAnacostia.

The

improvementof thelatterstream should

SANITARY

OF

WASHINGTON. 7

include the canalization of the whole river to a point at least three-fourthsofa mile above Benning's bridge, or, better still,to the limits of the District.

The

canalization should provide an

ample

outlet for flood-waters, but the wide stretch of flats and marshes along bothsidesof therivershould bethoroughlydrained

by

artificial means. Tributary streams from either side,

and

the outlets ofstorm-water sewers,should be carried to thewater-way at its naturalelevation,

—

^thecurrent, especially in thecaseof the

new Boundary Avenue

sewer,being checkedby a suflicient pond- ing of its outflow. So far as practicable,all upland watershould be

made

toflow tothe channelwithoutdescendinginto thedrained lands.

As

ⁱⁿHolland, so here,the deepdrainage of the reclaimed territory should be

by

open canals or ditches, which, inthe caseof theKidwellFlats,mightwell be

made

ofan ornamental character.

The

waterinthesecanals would be kept j^ure

by

the introduction of a sufficientflow from the river.

Except

duringviolentstorms, the

pumping

need be done onlyat low water,

when

but a slight lift would be required. It

would

be easy to connect nearly if not quiteall of thedrainage streams of the reclaimed landatone point forremoval,ata single

pumping

station.

Aside from the

economy and

simplicityof this system,itwould secure the verygreat advantage of afibrding easy deep drainage to those large areas of the ^citywhich

now

lie butslightly above tidelevel. This

means

of outlet being secured,therewill be no difficultyin rapidly reducing theground-waterlevel

by

natural or artificialdrainagesufficiently below the present grade forall sani- tary purposes. In short, the carrying out of this

improvement would

be practically equivalent to i-aising the whole citysix or eight feet above its present level,

and

giving it high

and

dry

ground

to theshore of a clear runningstream oneach side.

The

reclamation of theflatseastof thechannelof the Auacostia

is by all

means

to be recommended, as these ^flats must in time become,if they are not already, sources of malaria too near the city to be disregarded.

Such

of the reclaimed landasisnotneeded

O

THE TONER

LECTURES.

for municipal purposes, would,from its fertilityand its nearness to the market, have an agricultural value ^fully compensatingfor theoriginal

and

permanentcostof itsimprovement.

The

flats about the citybeing brought to a proper conditioUj the next object that claimsour attentionis thedrying of the soil of those partswhichare

now

conspicuously subject tosaturation.

Therearetwoleading objections to the saturation of the soilof an occupied site:

The

first

and

most clearlydefined is the

now

recognized influencewhichsoil saturationhas intheproduction or aggravation ofdiseases of the lungs. It has been clearly

shown by

Dr. Bowditch, andconfirmed

by

otherobservers,thatthereisa direct relation between consumption

and

a wetsoil inthevicinity of the dwelling. It is

known,

too, that the condition of the atmosphere^caused

by

excessivewetness of thegroundisunfavorable as regards other diseasesof therespiratory apparatns. In

Wash-

ington in 1879, out of a total death list of_4,309, 1,341 deaths

—

^{being overthirty per cent, of the total mortality}

—

^{were due to}

consumption and pneumonia. Itwouldbe too

much

to say that these diseases are to be completely eradicated

by

a thorough drainage of the ^soil; for constitutional taint, exposure ⁱⁿ other places,

and

^various other causes

must

still have their influence.

But

thesediseases, which for years past have invariably stood as the first two of the mortality list,

may

certainly be enormously reducedin their fatal eflTect.

The

other disadvantage of a wet soil is less clearly defined,

and

its efiectsareless readilyseparated from thoseof other causes ofill-health and of death. Precisely

what

processes aregoing on under the surface of the ground

—

^{what is the kind, extent, and}

character of the decomposition of organic matter there taking place

—

has not yet been determinedwithscientific accuracy.

We

have theoriesonly, but they are wellfounded

and

reasonable,

and

they

command

the confidence of those whose businessit is tocon- sider such matters.

Whatever

the processes, it is undoubtedly

true thata deleterious condition of the containedair of thesoilis

due tothe character of the decomposition within that soilof the organic matterwhich

may

have been added to it

by

vegetation,or which

may

have reached it from the ofT-scourings of

human

life.

We know

that theoxygen of theatmosphereisthegreatscavenger on which

we must

dependtodestroy these injuriousmatters in the ground;

we know

that its penetration into the soil is impossible

when

this isfilled with water,

and

that its entrance is

more and more

free,

and

its action

more and more

effective,in proportion asthe interiorspaces oftheearth are rapidlyemptiedof thewater whichthey

may

receive from rains.

We

^{know, too,that thedown-}

Avard

movement

of water through the soil carries with it to the drainage outlets below,whether natural or artificial, the oxidized products of decomposition,

and

that as the water descends the spaceswhich it

had

occupied are filled with fresh volumesof air.

We

^{know, too, that the good effects which attend} suchdescentof water in the soil,are substituted for the

bad

effects ofa rising from belowof thewater ofsaturation, which fillsthe poresof the earth,

and

prevents orimpedes the necessary

work

of atmospheric destruction.

There are parts ofyour city,

some

low-lying

and some

high- lying, which have so little inclination of the surface that rain- waterdoesnot readily flow away, but remains to soakslowly into theground, which is of so nearlyan impervious texture that the underground escape is extremelysIoav, if it is not practicallyab- sent. In

many

districts

much

of the water

by

which the earth is

wetted, lies clogging its pores, until

removed by

a chillingevap- oration,accompanied

by

the escape of

unwholesome

gases from the unclean earth.

So far asthisdefectivedrainageexists in Washington,

and

it is

by

no

means

exceptional, the best oreven tolerably goodsanitary surroundings cannot be hoped for. In so farasthe atmosphereof thecity isinsalubrious,it is not to be doubted that its insalubrity is directly or indirectlydue

more

largelyto thesaturated condition

10

THE TONER

LECTURES.

ofwideareas of its soil,than to the

more

offensive emanationsof thesewer catch-basins

and

the odorous nuisances which stillexist.

As

arule, in

my

judgment, the

damp

lands of thecity should be drainedby an independent _system of pipes entirelydisconnected, exceptat theiroutlets, with the sewer system. Itisusual, I know,

toleave, purposely or accidentally, sutficientopeningsto securethe admission of soil-water into the sewer,

and

so to effecta rude

and

incomplete, but still valuable, drainage of the ground. Efficient drainage of the whole areacannot be secured

by

thismeans, even were itnot,asitcertainlyis,extremelyobjectionable, forthereason,

among

others,that a sewerwhich will let ground-water into the conduit in wet weather, will let sewagematterintothe groundin dry weather, adding an important and foul contribution to the organic matter which the earth is already chargedwithdestroy- ing;

and

adding to the dangerof tainting the ground-air, with which the atmosphere about ourhouses,

and

especiallytheatmos- phere of ourcellars,isin freecommunication.

No

schemeforthe sanitary improvement of

Washington

can be considered even tolerablycomplete unless this very simple matter of the thorough drainage of thesoil is dulyandskilfullyprovided for.

In the constructionof

new work much may

beaccomplished

by

laying agricultural draining tiles in the

same

trenches with the sewers,but ordinarily

more

than this will be necessary,and it is

alwaysespeciallyimportantto establishsuch a relationbetween the subsoil drains

and

the sewers,where the latter must serveas out- letsfor the former,as shall fullyprotect the drains against

any

inflow or regurgitation of sewage matters, as these might readily escapefrom thetiles intothe ground.

"We

come now

tothe question of the sewerage of the city

—

^that

is tothe

means by

whichthe twenty-odd million gallons of water poured into it daily

by

the water-works,

much

of which serves as a carrier for household

and

manufacturing wastes,is tobe got

OF

WASHINGTON. 11

out of the city

and removed

to a pointwhereit will do no harm.

It hasbeenassumed iu the construction of

work

hithertoexecuted, that the drainage of the streets

and

the drainage of the houses is to pass off through the

same

channels.

Whatever

theobjections to this,there are undoubtedly practical reasons

why

this existing systemought not to be, or at least

why

it certainly will not be entirelyabandoned, butit isan objectionable system,

and

itsurely should not be extended. It seems to

me

thatits objections areso simple

and

palpable that they

must

convinceall

who

will consider them.

They

are largely as follows:

Any

sewer, as sewers are ordinarilyconstructed, with therateofinclination required

by

^the usual slopeof the ground,depending

upon

thesimple constant flow of the unassistedhouseholdwastes,

and

having the roughness

and

irregularity unavoidable in such work, must inevitable retain a depositalong its course, especiallytowardits upperend, where the

amount

of flow is slight, and wherethe solid matters are sure to

be stranded for

want

of sufiicient stream to

move them

forward.

Thiscondition ispretty nearlyconstant while house-drainage alone flows into a channel toowideforitto

wash

clean.- Itisaggravated whenever a light rain or a short heavy shower carries into the sewer horse-droppings, papers,

and

all

manner

of nameless rubbish fromthe surface of thestreet.

Now and

then there comesa

heavy

down-pour, or a long

and

strong rain,which gives every sewer a thorough scouring outfrom end to end, but the gradual flow at the endof everysucha storm too often leavesbehindit a deposit of earthy matters which its

waning volume and

velocity have been insufficienttocarryalong.

Even

wherethis does not happen,' the stormonce over

and

itsflow subsided, the houses along the routebegin again their

work

of dejiosit,

and we must

wait until another heavy rain for the thorough removal of the accumula-

tions. Itis during this waiting that the mischiefoccurs.

Itwillsurely be accepted

by

allsanitarySjngineers asvery desir- able thatallwaste organic matter should be deliveredatthe

mouth

of the sewer at least within twenty-four hoursafter itsproduction.

12

THE TONER

LECTURES.

I believe,

and

I think that I

am

supported in the belief by the opinion of the best sanitarians of the world, that this conditionis

absolutely indispensable to proper sewerage. Household wastes retained longer than this enter into a decomposition, extremely foul on accountof theiroriginal character,

and made

still worse

by

the conditions under whichthey are decomposing. Itisin the decomposition of such material in soil-pipes

and

in sewers, alone, thatwe'are tofind theseatof the

enemy

of which

we

hearso

much

under the

name

of " sewer-gas." This

much

decried

and

insidious sewer-gas is probablyentitled to mostof the

blame

itreceives for its

own

direct action,

and

to as

much more

from the fact that

it so often acts as a vehiclefor the germs,or causative particles of specific diseases. There is no safety in sewerage or in house- drainageuntil

we

prevent the production of these gases,

and

there areno

means

of accomplishingthis,short of the entire cleanliness ofevery pipe,drain,

and

sewerwhich serves forthe removal offoul organic matter.

To

secure this condition is within the power of theengineer. There

may

stillbea very^slightslimingof the walls of the best sewer,

and

a feeble decomposition of matters so ad- hering will be inevitable; but its

amount

is so slight that it is easily within the reach of simplemeasuresofventilation to prevent

it from causing injury or perceptible odor. It is truethat there are veryfew sewers

now

existingwhichare in this condition, but

it is equally true that the constructionofsuch sewers would be materially cheaper than thatof those which are

more

liable to

become

ofiensive.

I thinkit

may

beset

down

as an indisputableproposition,that before the city of

Washington

can be considered to be as well drained as it shouldbe, every footof the sewers with which its

houses are connected must be ^so improved as to be at all times entirely freefromdepositsoforganic matter.

Thisend istobe securedbythe following provisions: (1.)

Every

sewer should be of such size that its regularflow, except near its

upper end, shallbe sufficienttocarryforward all matters of what-

SANITARY DRAINAGE

OF

WASHINGTON. 13

ever characterthat

come

to it, no haltingby the

way

being possi- ble. Incidentally to this, no matters should be admitted to the sewerwhichits ordinary flowisnotcapable of removing. (2.)

At

the head ofeach sewer,

—

technically called " the dead end,"

—

there should be placed a flush-tank,discharging, at least oncein twenty-four hours, a suflScient

volume

of water to sweep out all material deposited higher

up

the stream thanthe pointwherethe efficient naturalscouringbegins, and to increase thedepth of flow throughout thelower portion of the linebeyondthat, at

any

time, reached

by

the naturalcurrent, sothat the mattersadheringto the walls of the sewer

may

be washed away. (3.)

The

material

and

the jointing of the sewer should be such as toretain absolutely all of the liquid portion ofits contents; the water of the sewage is allneededasa vehicleforits heavier materials,

and

its escapeinto the soilmust produce thedeleterious effect

upon

the^"ground-air^"

before referredto.

The

popularidea as to the sizeofdrain required to receive the outflow of asinglehouse, or of a

number

of houses, isstrangelyin error.

A

^{j^ipe 6 inches in diameter,}having an inclination of4 inches in 100 feet,has a capacity of discharge of nearly 200gal- lons per minute,

—

say 12,000 gallons per hour, or between 8

and

11 in the morning,36,000 gallons. It is usual to estimate that duringthese threehoursabout one-quarter of the daily flowisdis- charged.

Such

apipe then, atsuch an inclination,

would

be ade- quate to the removalof nearly 150,000 gallons per day. If each household averages six persons,

and

if the daily consumption of water is even 50gallonsper head, the service

would

be sufficient for 500houses; or,supposing the sewer to run only one-half full

during thehours of greatest use, for 250houses. It is to be con- sidered also that it israrelynecessarytolay a lateralsewer with so slight a fall as four inches in 100 feet,

and

thatan increaseof fall secures,of course, anincrease of discharge.

During

the pastyear, underthe direction of theNational

Board

of Health,I have

made

a

number

of gaugings in different parts of the country to deter-

14

THE TONER LECTURES.

mine

the actual, practical dry-weatherflow of public sewersduring thehours ofgreatest use.

The

resultsof these gaugingsfully sus- tain the estimate just given. Generally, where from 50 to 100 houses contributedto thesewer,the dischargefilled a six-inchpipe fromlessthan onetotwoand one-half inchesdeep.

A

^sewerin

Milwaukee

draining an area of about 70acres,

and

serving a population of over 3,000,

had

the whole of its flow de- liveredthrough a six-inch pipe, which it did notentirely fill.

A

sewer in St. Louis, draining adistricthavinga population of over 11,000,

had

its entire flow delivered through a twelve-inch pipe which itonly aboutone-halffilled.

The

belief is very general that if a given flow ofsewage can be discharged through a small pipe, it can surely be discharged through a large one. This is not true.

The

whole sewage, solid matters and all, will be completely

removed by

a small sewer, while only the liquid portions

and

the smaller solids will be removed

by

a large one.

The

solid matters, beyondthe capacity of the broad

and

^flat stream to remove them, remain as a deposit in the large sewer, always subject to decomposition,

and

often liable to obstruct thewater-way, to lessen thealreadyslight scouring capacity of theflow,

and

to invite further deposit. This action proceeds without interruption, unless occasional storm-flow washes

away

the accumulations. In aggravated cases, where the sewer is very large, and where the storm-flow is slight, thewhole sewer becomesfilled with the deposit until there is left under its

crownonly the small channel needed for the ordinary flow.

It is the invariable tendency of large sewers to accumulate deposits in this manner, which constitutes the chief but

by

^no

means

the only

argument

in favor of their abolition, as house sewers. 1 have very carefully considered the general features of the existing sewersof Washington, and I believe that these can never be

made

satisfactory imtil the larger ones are generally restricted to the removal ofstorm-water only; their place being

15

supplied, where they areso abandoned,

by

smaller pipes forhouse- drainage.

Assuming

thisbelief to be well founded, the problemto be con- sideredis, in

what way

best to

make

use ofsuch of the sewers of

Washington

as are suitable forthe purpose;

and

ⁱⁿ

what way

to introduce

new

worksso that thesystem

by

which thehouses areto be drained shall conform to the best requirements;

and

in

what way

best to dispose of the outflow, to the end that no housein the city

may

be connectedwith a sewerwhich at

any

time or under anycircumstances

may

retain organic matterin astateof decom- position;

and

that no house

may

dischargeinto asewerwhoseuse- fulness isever, eventemporarily, interferedwith

by

storm-water or

by

back-flow. In short, to give to everyhouse a clean

and

well- ventilatedchannelto carryits waste matter to a point

whence

no

ill effect

may

return.

To

determine to

what

extent

and

precisely in

what manner

the present sewers can be

made

useful as a part of thissystem, would require

more

detailed knowledge concerning

them

than I

now

possess.

One

importantquestion

would

be the extent to whichit

would be cheaper to construct at the heads of the sewersflush- tanks large enough to keep

them

clean, than tosubstitute for

them

smaller pipes which would be

more

cheaply flushed. Another would be to determine the cost of

making

the present sewers absolutely tight.

Even

pipe-sewers, as ordinarily laid,are very aptto leakat thejoints to such a degreeas to rob thesewageof its

water,

and

tocontaminatethesoil.

So far asthe present sewers cannot be

made

to conformtothe requirementswhich I have indicated, theyshouldundoubtedly be reservedfor street use only, and

new

small ones with absolutely tight jointsshouldbe furnished totake their place asanoutlet for house drainage.

Letus forthe

moment

assumethat all of theexisting sewers of the higher parts of the city can be

made

suitable for thework,

and

thatitwill becheapertoflushthem, largethoughtheyare,than

16 THE TONER

LECTURES.

to buildothers to supplementtliem. In this case it would be an easy matterforallsewers lying abovea certain level

—

^{all, in fact,}

exceptthosewhich drain the lowerandflatterpartsof the city

—

^to

have their dry-weather flow intercepted, so that the ordinaryfoul sewage

may

beled

by

gravitationdirectlyto asuitable pointforits

discharge. This

may

be done

by

building an intercepting sewer adjustedinits sizeto this

work

only, ata level belowthe present sewers atthe points of interception, connecting thelatterwith the intercepting sewer

by

such channels of communication as will admit all of the foul sewage

and

the water used for flushing.

Channels large

enough

for this purpose would carry into an intercepting sewer the flow of light rains.

The

waters of heavy storms would pass on through the present extensions of the sewers beyond the intercepting ^line,

and

find their outlet into the B-street sewer or other large, outlet mainsof the storm-water system.

Wherever

it

became

necessary within thishigh districtto build independent smaller sewers for house drainage only, these might be

made

to dischargedirectly into the interceptingsewer.

It is of but little importance that during heavy storms sewage matterwouldbe carried into

and

throughthe storm-watersewers, forthe reason thatat such times thesewage isenormouslydiluted,

and

is dischargedinto atorrent in the

main

sewers whichisquite suretoremoveitinoffensively.

At

the termination of astorm the flow of the laterals would be reduced to the capacity of the intercepting inletslong before therewould cease tobea considera- bleflowinthe storm-water sewers.

For

thoseparts of thecitywhich lie too low for interception

by

asewer delivering above high waterat a distant point,itwould, unquestionably, be cheaper andbetter to

abandon

allcommunica- tion with the present large sewers,

and

^to construct an entirely independent system ^for house drainage, depending for this solely ona

pumping

outlet, at leastduring the higherstages of thetide.

I see no other

way

in which the drainage of thislower district

can be

made

satisfactory.

For

the carrying out ofa plan requir-

SANITARY

ing the

pumping

of sewage,

we

have the conspicuous example of the Surrey ^sideof London, where not only house drainage, but a largepart of the storm-water as well, is lifted above the levelof hightide, the lift varying from 28 to 48 feet.

The

adoption of thisplan herewould immediately relievethewhole problem of its difficulties. Surfacewater being left to take care of itself, as at present,drainage to

any

desired depth could easilybe given totiie

houses of even the lowest parts of thecity.

This wouldinvolve, it is true, thecompletere-sewerage of all of the lower district, but it is, I think, easily demonstrable that no other device would befreefrom grave sanitary objections; andif the

new

sewers are adjusted to the

work

of foul drainage only, as are those of

Memphis, now

nearly completed, the cost would be incomparably lessthan thatof theoriginal storm-water system.

Aside from storm-water removal, the carrying

away

offoul sew- age,

and

the drainage of the flats about the city, attention is

urgently

demanded

to aradical

and

almost universal

improvement

of the interior drainage ofhouses. Dr. Townshend, the Health Officer of theDistrict, in hisreportfor 1879, says:

"I

think it is safe to say that of the thousandsof houses in the District of

Columbia

which have house-sewer connections, scarcelyonehun- dred can befound which have any ventforthesesewers outside the house-rooms."

He

also says, in speaking of the escape of the gases of the sewers into dwellings: "

What

remainsfor the sanita- rian, however,is to

warn

anindolent public agijinst resting in the fancied securityof contrivancesforthe repulse of this arch enemy, which recent research

and

^a better insight have proved to be worthless in the fulfilment of the purpose desired.

A

few years ago itwas considered all-sufficient

upon

constructingawater-closet in a house to placeunder the bowl a pieceof bent pipe

made

to hold half an inch or so of water,which was to act as a barrier against all gas, no matter

what

the pressure under which ^it was heldin thesewers.

Numbers

and

numbers

of water-closets erected

2

lb

THE TONER

LECTURES.

afterthis

manner

were putinhousesin this city,and

some

of

them

fcie doubtless still remaining, the occupants resting easyin the belief thattheirsewers are^'trapped.'"

I learn from his report also that out-of-door privies are still largely usedin this

modern

Capital. It seems almostan insult to the intelligenceof such anaudienceasthisto callrenewed attention to thefact that under uo circumstances should a privy vault, a cess-pool, or

any

otherdeviceforretainingwithin thelimits of the city the frecal matters

and

other wastes of the householdbeper- mittedtoexist adaylongerthanisrequiredforits destruction,

and

forthe connection of thehouse with a publicsewer.

The

palpable public nuisance of the old-fashioned privyvault, hasbeen vastlyalleviated

by

the use of theodorless excavator,

and

I think it isfair to say that,for this reason, the invention of the odorlessexcavator wasa public calamity.

Even

supposing thatit

were practicable to

make any

considerable proportion of privy vaults tight

—

^{which it is not}

—

^{orsupposingeven thatthe Charles-}

ton earthenwarereceptacle should be adopted, the difficultywould be only slightly mitigated; it would be

by

no

means

removed.

However

effectually such

work

might prevent the contamination of the ^soil, its inevitable contamination of the atmosphere con-

demns

it totally.

During

the limited time requiredfortheentire abolition of these nuisances, the odorless excavating apparatus

may

render amostusefulpublicservice, butits continuedexistence can only be a continued advertisement of the fact that the

community

employing ithasagreater regardfor outward decency than for radical purity.

That

such nuisances should still exist in

Washington

isa disgrace tothe country.

Hardly more

areyou to be complimented

upon

thecondition of the alleys of the city. Dr.

Townshend

describes the populated alleys as follows: "Drainage is generally effected

by

the placing of a sewer-trap, ordrop, at the

mouth

or entrance, to which all wash-water, etc., isdirected

by

a surface-drain having but a slight fall. Intothis drain all slops,wash-water,etc.,

must

go,

and

into

SANITARY DKAINAGE

OF

WASHINGTON. 19

such waste material a considerable quantity of animalandvegeta- blematterisapt tofind its way.

"The

^license to deposit waste-water becomes an incentive to throwrefuse,garbage,etc.,andoften,twenty-fourhoursafterclean- ing,

we

find these alleys again in afilthy condition.

The

drains

become

obstructedby smalldeposits,

and

the waste-water,etc., soon accumulates

and

becomes offensive."

He,of course,suggests the obvious

and

satisfactory remedy,

—

the construction of sewers forthe whole length of thealleys.

Thereare other points in your Health Ofiicer's reportwhich it

would be worth while to consider here, did time suffice. Icom-

mend

the original

document

to your careful attention,

and

^will return

now

tothe question of house drainage.

Ihave long held tothe opinion that defective house drains are a far

more

important factor in the production of disease than defective sewers,and that

more

of thesewergas, towhichso

many

of our ills are ascribed,is produced

by

decomposition in pipes insidethehouse than

by

decomposition in sewers outside the house.

Defective sewers are

common

enough in all conscience, though theirconstruction has been

much

improved within the past ten or twenty years,but defective soil-pipes

and

water-closets

and

traps are almost universal.

The

beginningof their

improvement

dates from a veryrecent time. Nominally our houses are often built underthe direction of architects,but in reality this mostimport- ant part of the

work

isgenerallyleftto the unrestricted control of mechanics who,however intelligent and faithful they

may

be in their

manner

of working,have

had

no training, and at least no suflacieotinstruction as tothe whole effectof

what

theyattempt to do.

The journeyman plumber

does the

work

thathelearned todo

when

hewas an apprentice; the apprentice learned

what

^hisboss taught him;

and

his boss learned it

when

hewas an apprentice.

There are

many

praiseworthy exceptions of course,

and

their

number

is rapidlyincreasing, but ^I

am

speaking

now

of existing work, donefive, ten, twenty yearsago, at a time

when

the architect

20 THE TONER

LECTURES.

rarelythought of anything further than getting rid of drainage- water,

and when

the plumber

knew

nothing better than the use of sound material

and

the execution of sound work,

and

often avoided these.

Whether

the plumberor thearchitect orthehouse owner is to

blame

forthepresent condition of thehousedrainage of thiscity,

and

of all othercities, is ofno consequence.

The

fact exists thatthroughtheignorance of one or all of them,

work

has been put ^into dwellinghouses, almostuniversally, which

had much

betterbetaken out

and

replaced, and which oughtimperatively to be thoroughly overhauled.

Pray

do notthink that Isaythis without a thought as to the enormoustax thatsuch a reform must impose

upon

the community, or that Isayitlightlybecause of theslight responsibilityattaching to a publiclecture

—

^{Isayitin all}earnestness

and

advisedly.

By

theofficial statement,the deathsin theDistrict in 1879 from diseases which are believed to be very materiallyaffected

by bad

drainage,

—

^either

by

soil-moisture or by filth,

— ^amounted

^{to just}

aboutone-half of thetotal mortality. I believe thatone-fourth of thelivesthussacrificed might have been saved

by

puttingevery house intoperfectcondition as tothedryness of thesoilon which it

stands

and by

whichit is surrounded,

and

as to the appliances

by

which its filth isremoved. I believe, thatis,thatfivehundredper- sonsannually diewithinthis District because of thedefectivecon- dition of the houses in which theylive. Thisbelief, and not

by any means

thedesire to offera striking proposition,is

my

motivein saying

what

Ido on this subject.

Were

I to attempt totreat it

adequately, I should be obliged to

make

a fresh start and to delivera tediouslylonglectureon housedrainageonly. Iwillcon- tentmyself on thisoccasion with the

remark

thatleaky drains dis-

charging theircontents into orundercellars

and

foundationwalls, leakysoil-pipes discharging foul gases into living I'ooms, unventi- lated drains

and

soil-pipes wherein the foulest decomposition is incessant,

pan

water-closetswhich are as abominable as they are universal,

and

defective traps, or too often the absence of traps.

SANITARY

OF

WASHINGTON. 21

constitute together a source of disease and deatli

compared

with which yoursewers and your river bottoms are insignificant.

The

improvement of these isvery ^essential to the welfare of the city,

but however complete it

may

be made, you will bein farfrom a good sanitary condition until your houses are put into proper plight.

Itisnopart of

my

purpose to criticise the

many recommenda-

tions of those

who

have preceded

me

in the discussion of the

"Washingtonproblems,but I must

make

an exception in the case of one recommendation of the

Board

of Survey of 1872, which is

of radical importance.

That Board

advises,with reference to the sewageof the region discharging through the

Rock

Creek valley

and

to the discharge of the B-street sewer,that these be allowed to flow into an outlet, presumablya sewer, in which the tide will rise

and

^fall; the theory beingthat the

volume

of thetidal flow will be so great as to nullify

any

bad effect otherwise to be apprehended.

This conclusion isnot in accordancewith the opinion of thebest engineers in England, where the question of tidal outlets has always been prominent. It is found that the checking of the current by the set-back of tide-water causes deposits which are a fruitfulsource oftrouble.

With

the great constant flowfrom the

Upper Potomac

itwould probablybe safe,at leastfora long timeto come, todischarge the sewage in a fresh state into the open river,after its channel shall have beenrectified as proposed; though sooner or laterthe deposit ontheflats at Gravelly Pointwould doubtless

make

itnecessary to reclaim

them

also,carrying the rectified

main

channel farther down. Itisnot impossible thatitwill befound necessary, in time, to dispose of the dry-weather flow of the sewers

by

agricultural irrigation, ata safedistancebelow thecity.

I have

now

sketched in a rapid

manner

the

main

featuresofa comprehensive scheme which seemsto

me

adequateto theimprove-

ment

required. Let me, in closing, restateitsessentialpoints^:

<l-2

THE TONER

LECTURES.

(1.)

The Potomac

Flats or Kidwell Bottoms, and theflats

and

marshes along the Anaeostia, to be reclaimed after the

Dutch

practice,

by embanking

and pumping.

The embankment

orper-

manent

defencestobe soplacedas toleave the necessary channels for

commerce

and for the safe discharge of the greatest flow of water.

(2.)

The

discharge of the lateral streams

and

of storm-water sewers to be carried beyondthesedefences

and

delivered into the

main

channels of the river, with such precautions inthe caseof theAnaeostia as will prevent injury ^to theworks

by

the rapidity

and volume

^{of theflow.}

(3.)

The

complete under-draining orsubsoil drainage of the site of thecity.

(4.)

The

separate removal of the foul drainage.

That

^from the higher portions tobe discharged

by

intercepting sewers into thePotomac, or at a safe pointfortreatment

by

irrigation.

The

intercepting sewers to receive the whole flowof

new

house-drain sewers,

and

the dry-weather flowof such sewers ^as

may

be retained for the double use of carrying surface-water

and

house drainage.

The

fouldrainage of the lower ^partsof thecity to be throwninto thehigh-levelintercepting sewer

by

^pumping.

(5.)

The

abolition of privy vaults

and

cess-pools,

and

the completereformation of theinterior drainage of houses.

It will not, I

am

sure, be doubted that the completeexecution of theseworks would

make Washington

a perfectly healthycity.

No

one

who

is qualified to form a

judgment

on the subject will doubtthat the ^{entire cost}of the improvementwill be

more

than

ofiset

by

^the increased value of real estate

now

sufiering from a

bad

sanitary reputation,

and

by the value for ornamental or economic purposes of theland to be ^reclaimed along the ^rivers.

WASHINGTON. 23

I

am

sure

some

^{willagreewith}

me

that thespecial

means

proposed will effect these desirable ends not only

more

economically, but also

more

cheaply than it could bedone

by

other plans thathave beensuggested.

A

^{constant free}outlet forthe natural landdrain- age several feetbelow the surface of thedrainedflats isinitself a most important object.