The Limitation of Freedom of Expression by State as a Crime during Pandemic Covid-19 in Indonesia

The Limitation of Freedom of Expression by State as a Crime during Pandemic Covid-19 in Indonesia

Hesti Armiwulan¹

‹˜‡”•‹–ƒ•—”ƒ„ƒ›ƒǡ†‘‡•‹ƒ

Abstract

Freedom of expression (FE) is a pillar of a democratic society. Various democratic nations promote freedom of expression (FOE) to increase self-reliance and self-assurance among individuals by affording them diverse possibilities to share their thoughts. Hence, continual technological advancement has led to the use of various social media platforms to express one's ideas and opinions. Thus, during global crises, FOE is typically constrained in light of public interests. During the covid-19 epidemic, for instance, many governments implemented restrictions on FOE to avoid disseminating false information about covid-19, which could influence public views and lead to public uproar. Indonesia has similarly criminalized FOE. As a result, numerous human rights advocates and journalists have been assaulted for expressing their opinions in public, which may harm society. These laws are press and media constraints on freedom of expression. Thus, the Indonesian government rationalized these actions as national and regional laws violations. To justify restrictions on FOE, the Indonesian government highlighted common interests, such as public health and public order. The primary objective of this study was to legitimize the state's restrictions on freedom of expression as a criminal during the covid-19 pandemic in Indonesia. The present study employed a justificatory technique within the context of legal and normative regulations for this goal. According to the findings of this study, FOE was classified as a criminal offense during the covid-19 epidemic. In this manner, all FOEs in public and media spheres were criminalized, restricting the FOE. Thus, the present study suggests that Article 127 of the "Electronic Information and Transactions (EIT) Law" in Indonesia be repealed to encourage the treatment of FOE activities as "civil litigation.".

‡›™‘”†•ǣ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆš’”‡••‹‘Ǣ‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•Ǣ”‹‡Ǣ‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻƒ†‡‹…Ǣ†‘‡•‹ƒǢ‡†‹ƒ

1. Introduction

˜‡”›†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…ƒ–‹‘‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡•…‹–‹œ‡•̵ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘ȋ Ȍ‘”ˆ”‡‡

•’‡‡…Š–‘•–”‡‰–Š‡–Š‡‹”‘’‹‹‘•ǡ˜‘‹…‡•ǡƒ††‹ˆˆ‡”‡…‡•ǤŠ‹•…‘–”‹„—–‡•–‘–Š‡

’”‘•’‡”‹–›‘ˆƒ†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…ƒ–‹‘Ǥ ‹•‘–Ž‹‹–‡†–‘‡š…Šƒ‰‹‰‘’‹‹‘•‘”‹†‡ƒ•Ǣ

‹–ƒŽ•‘’”‘‘–‡••Šƒ”‹‰„‡Ž‹‡ˆ•ƒ†…‘˜‹…–‹‘•‹ƒ›’—„Ž‹…ƒ†’”‹˜ƒ–‡˜‡—‡•

ȋŽ–•Š—Ž‡”ǡʹͲʹͳȌǤ–‹•‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡‹†‡–‡”‹‹‰ƒƒ–‹‘̵•†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…•›•–‡Ǥ ‹•

ͳ‡’ƒ”–‡–‘ˆ‘•–‹–—–‹‘ƒŽƒ™ǡ ƒ…—Ž–›‘ˆƒ™ǡ‹˜‡”•‹–ƒ•—”ƒ„ƒ›ƒǡ†‘‡•‹ƒǤ

ƒ‹ŽǣŠ‡•–‹̷•–ƒˆˆǤ—„ƒ›ƒǤƒ…Ǥ‹†

Copyright © 2022 International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences (IJCJS) – Official Journal of the South Asian Society of Criminology and Victimology (SASCV) - Publisher & Editor-in-Chief – K. Jaishankar ISSN: 0973-5089 July – December 2022. Vol. 17 (2): 101–113. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4756113 / IJCJS is a Diamond Open Access (Authors / Readers No Pay Journal). Indexed in Scopus and Emerging Sources Citation Index (Web of Science).

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0) License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

ƒŽ•‘…‘•‹†‡”‡†ƒ‡…‡••ƒ”›…‘†‹–‹‘ˆ‘”†‡˜‡Ž‘’‹‰ƒ…‹˜‹Ž•‘…‹‡–›ǤŠ‹•‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡•

‹Šƒ„‹–ƒ–•‘ˆƒ…‘—–”›–‘•’‡ƒ‘—–ƒ‰ƒ‹•–ƒ›„”‡ƒ…Š‘ˆ•–ƒ–‡‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ”–‹…Ž‡

ͳͻ‘ˆ–Š‡‹–‡†ƒ–‹‘•—ƒ‹‰Š–•‘—…‹ŽȋʹͲͳ͹Ȍ‰”ƒ–•ƒŽŽ’‡‘’Ž‡‘ˆƒƒ–‹‘

–Š‡”‹‰Š––‘‡š’”‡••–Š‡‹”˜‹‡™•™‹–Š‘—–‡š–‡”ƒŽ‘”‹–‡”ƒŽ…‘•–”ƒ‹–•ȋ‡•‡ǡʹͲʹʹȌǤ

‡…‡ǡ ƒ› ‘”‰ƒ‹œƒ–‹‘ ‘” ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ –Šƒ– †‡ˆ‡†• –Š‡ ’”‹ƒ”‹Ž› ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡•

•‡˜‡”ƒŽ†‡‘…”ƒ–‹……‘…‡’–•ǡ•—…Šƒ•‘Ǧ†‹•…”‹‹ƒ–‹‘ƒ†‡“—ƒŽ‹–›ǡ”‡‰ƒ”†Ž‡••‘ˆ

–Š‡ ‰‡†‡”ǡ •‹ …‘Ž‘”ǡ ’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ ƒˆˆ‹Ž‹ƒ–‹‘ǡ ‘” ”ƒ…‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ȋ‹”ƒ–”ƒƒ Ƭ

ƒˆ”ƒ…‡ǡ ʹͲʹͳȌǤ ‡–ǡ †‡‘…”ƒ…› Šƒ• ‡˜‘Ž˜‡† ‹–‘ ƒ ’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ •›•–‡ –Šƒ– ‹• ™‹†‡Ž›

ƒ……‡’–‡†„›ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‘—†–Š‡™‘”Ž†Ǥ

‹‹Žƒ”Ž›ǡ˜ƒ”‹‘—•†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…‹†‡ƒŽ•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ƒ†‘’–‡†‹†‘‡•‹ƒǡ‡…‘—”ƒ‰‹‰

‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• –‘ ‡š’”‡•• –Š‡‹” ˜‹‡™• ƒ† „‡Ž‹‡ˆ•Ǥ ‹‰—”‡ ͳ ‹ŽŽ—•–”ƒ–‡• †‘‡•‹ƒ̵•

†‡‘…”ƒ–‹… ’‡”ˆ‘”ƒ…‡ †—”‹‰ –Š‡ ’ƒ•– ˆ‹˜‡ ›‡ƒ”• ȋ…Š‡ƒ Ƭ ‡’—……‹ǡ ʹͲͳͻȌǤ

Š‹••…‘”‡Šƒ•„‡‡ˆ‘—†–‘Šƒ˜‡•–‡ƒ†‹Ž›†‡…Ž‹‡†‘˜‡”–Š‡›‡ƒ”•ǡ…ƒ—•‹‰ƒŽƒ”

ƒ‘‰–Š‡†‘‡•‹ƒƒ—–Š‘”‹–‹‡•Ǥ

‹‰—”‡ͳǤ‡‘…”ƒ…›•…‘”‡‹†‘‡•‹ƒȋʹͲͳ͸–‘ʹͲʹͲȌ

‘—”…‡ǣˆ”‡‡†‘Š‘—•‡Ǥ‘”‰

Š‡ͳͻͶͷ†‘‡•‹ƒ‘•–‹–—–‹‘ˆ‘…—•‡•’”‹ƒ”‹Ž›‘–Š‡”‹‰Š–•‘ˆƒŽŽŠ—ƒ•

ƒ† ‹…‘”’‘”ƒ–‡• –Š‡ Ǥ Š—•ǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡– ‹• ”‡“—‹”‡† „› ‹–•

…‘•–‹–—–‹‘–‘’”‡•‡”˜‡ƒ†”‡•’‡…–Š—ƒ”‹‰Š–•Ǥ‘…‘’Ž›™‹–Š–Š‡…‘•–‹–—–‹‘̵•

”‡“—‹”‡‡–•ǡƒ›Žƒ™•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‡ƒ…–‡†–Šƒ–ˆƒ…‹Ž‹–ƒ–‡ ̵•†‹”‡…–‘”‹†‹”‡…–

ˆ—Žˆ‹ŽŽ‡–Ǥ ‘”‹•–ƒ…‡ǡ—ƒ‹‰Š–•ȋȌ•–ƒ–—–‡‘Ǥ͵ͻ’”‘‘–‡•–Š‡ƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘

‘ˆŠ—ƒ”‹‰Š–•‡š–‡•‹˜‡Ž›ȋͳͻͻͻȌǤ‹‹Žƒ”Ž›ǡŽƒ™‘ǤͶͲ‘ˆ‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡• ǡ–Š‡

”‹‰Š––‘‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†–Š‡’”‘–‡…–‹‘‘ˆ’”‡••’‡‘’Ž‡ƒ†‡†‹ƒǤ

 ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ –Š‡ ̶Ž‡…–”‘‹… ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ† ”ƒ•ƒ…–‹‘• ȋȌ ƒ™̶ ‹•

”‡•’‘•‹„Ž‡ ˆ‘” •ƒˆ‡‰—ƒ”†‹‰ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ”‹‰Š–• ƒ† ‘Ž‹‡ †ƒ–ƒǤ ††‹–‹‘ƒŽŽ›ǡ ‹–

‹…‘”’‘”ƒ–‡•…›„‡”’”‹˜ƒ…›ƒ†’”‘–‡…–‹‘ˆ”‘‘Ž‹‡”‹••ȋ‹”ƒ–”ƒƒǡʹͲʹͲȌǤ

ƒ …‹˜‹Ž •‘…‹‡–›ǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡– Šƒ• ƒŽ™ƒ›• ’”‘–‡…–‡† –Š‡ ‘ˆ ƒŽŽ ‹–•

‹Šƒ„‹–ƒ–•ǤŠ‡†‘‡•‹ƒ‘•–‹–—–‹‘‰—ƒ”ƒ–‡‡•‡˜‡”›‘‡̵•”‹‰Š––‘ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ

‡š’”‡••‹‘ǡ…”‡ƒ–‹‰ƒ•ƒˆ‡ƒ†’”‘†—…–‹˜‡™‘”’Žƒ…‡ˆ‘”‡˜‡”›‘‡ǡ‹…Ž—†‹‰–Š‘•‡

™Š‘™‘”‹–Š‡‡†‹ƒȋŽ–•Š—Ž‡”ǡʹͲʹͳȌǤ‘‡–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ–Š‡•–ƒ–‡ƒ›Ž‹‹––Š‡ ˆ‘”

‰”‘—†•‘ˆ’—„Ž‹…‹–‡”‡•–‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ•‡…—”‹–›ǤŠ‹•…Žƒ—•‡‹•’”‹ƒ”‹Ž›„ƒ•‡†‘–Š‡

†‘‡•‹ƒ ‡’—„Ž‹…̵• ”ƒ–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ̶–Š‡ ‘˜‡ƒ– ‘ ‹˜‹Ž ƒ† ‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ ‹‰Š–•Ǥ̶

……‘”†‹‰–‘–Š‹•”ƒ–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ–Š‡•–ƒ–‡ƒ›”‡•–”‹…–‘”Ž‹‹–•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ

ˆ”‡‡†‘•‘””‹‰Š–•‘ˆ–Š‡’‡‘’Ž‡ǡ•—…Šƒ•–Š‡ ‹”•–‡†‡–‘”ˆ”‡‡‡š’”‡••‹‘Ǥ

––Š‡–‹‡‘ˆ…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻǡ–Š‡ǡƒŽŽ†‘‡•‹ƒ”‡•‹†‡–•™‡”‡”‡“—‹”‡†–‘ƒ†Š‡”‡

–‘ ’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ” ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘• ƒ† ’‘Ž‹…‹‡• –‘ †‡ƒŽ ™‹–Š –Š‡ ‹••—‡Ǥ ‡˜‡”ƒŽ Žƒ™• ƒ†

”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘• ™‡”‡ ‹’‘•‡† ‘ –Š‡ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ’—„Ž‹… –‘ ’”‡˜‡– …‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ

–”ƒ•‹••‹‘ ‹ˆ –Š‡ ’—„Ž‹… Žƒ…‡† Ž‡‰ƒŽ ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ƒ† ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘ ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰

…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘• ȋ‘—Ž‘•ǡ ʹͲʹʹȌǤ  ‰‡‡”ƒŽǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡–

‹’‘•‡† …”‹‹ƒŽ •ƒ…–‹‘• ‘ –Š‘•‡ ™Š‘ ‹ˆŽ—‡…‡† ‘–Š‡”• –‘ ’”‘–‡•– ƒ‰ƒ‹•–

–Š‡‰‘˜‡”‡–̵•’‘Ž‹…‹‡•‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ•‹…‡–Š‡›’”‘Š‹„‹–‡†–Š‡

ˆ”‘‡š‡”…‹•‹‰–Š‡‹” ‹”•–‡†‡–”‹‰Š–•ȋ‘Ž•‘˜‡”ǡʹͲʹͲȌǤŠ‡•‡’‡‘’Ž‡ƒ”‡

”‡‰ƒ”†‡† ƒ• ‘Ǧ…‘’Ž‹ƒ–Ǥ Š‹• •–—†›̵• ’”‹ƒ”› ‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡ ‹• –‘ —•‡ ƒ

Œ—•–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‘”›ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š™‹–Š‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆŽ‡‰ƒŽƒ†‘”ƒ–‹˜‡‘”•–‘Œ—•–‹ˆ›

–Š‡”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‘ †—”‹‰–Š‡…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ‘—–„”‡ƒ‹†‘‡•‹ƒǤ

‡–ǡ†—”‹‰…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻǡ•‡˜‡”ƒŽ‰‘˜‡”‡–•‹’‘•‡†Ž‹‹–•‘…‘‡”…‹ƒŽƒ†

•‘…‹ƒŽ ƒ…–‹˜‹–‹‡•ǡ ƒ• ™‡ŽŽ ƒ• ǡ –‘ •ƒˆ‡‰—ƒ”† –Š‡ •ƒˆ‡–› ƒ† ™‡ŽŽǦ„‡‹‰ ‘ˆ

‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• „› ’”‡˜‡–‹‰ ƒ› …‘ˆŽ‹…–• †—”‹‰ –Š‡ …—””‡– •–ƒ–‡‘ˆ ‡‡”‰‡…›Ǥ ‘” ‹•–ƒ…‡ǡ ƒ Œ‘—”ƒŽ‹•–̵• ƒ••‡”–‹‘ ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ –Š‡ Žƒ… ‘ˆ –”ƒ•’ƒ”‡…› ‹ –Š‡

…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ†ƒ–ƒ•‘™‡†…‘ˆ—•‹‘ƒ‘‰–Š‡’—„Ž‹…ǡŽ‡ƒ†‹‰–‘ƒ”‹•‡‹†‡•’ƒ‹”ƒ†

ƒš‹‡–› ƒ‘‰ –Š‡ ’‘’—Žƒ…‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ƒˆˆ‡…–‡† –Š‡‹” ‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ ’‡”ˆ‘”ƒ…‡Ǥ Š—•ǡ

–Š‡”‡‹•ƒ—”‰‡–‡…‡••‹–›–‘…‘•‹†‡”–Š‡”‡•–”‹…–‹‘‘ˆ „›–Š‡•–ƒ–‡ƒ•ƒ

…”‹‹ƒŽ†—”‹‰–Š‡…‘˜‹†̵ͳͻ’ƒ†‡‹…‹•‡˜‡”ƒŽ†‡˜‡Ž‘’‹‰ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ—”‹‰–Š‡

Ǧͳͻ’ƒ†‡‹…‹†‘‡•‹ƒǡ–Š‹••–—†› •—……‡••ˆ—ŽŽ›’”‘˜‹†‡†‰”‘—†•ˆ‘”

–Š‡•–ƒ–‡̵•”‡•–”‹…–‹‘‘ˆ ƒ•ƒ…”‹‡Ǥ 2. Method

Š‹• •–—†› ‡’Ž‘›‡† ƒ Œ—•–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‘”› –‡…Š‹“—‡ ™‹–Š‹ –Š‡ …‘–‡š– ‘ˆ Ž‡‰ƒŽ ƒ†

‘”ƒ–‹˜‡”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‹•“—ƒŽ‹–ƒ–‹˜‡•–—†›ˆ‘…—•‡†‘•–Ž›‘–Š‡ƒ”‰—‡–•ˆ‘”

ƒ†ƒ‰ƒ‹•–…”‹‹ƒŽ‹œ‹‰ †—”‹‰…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ‹†‘‡•‹ƒǤŠ‹••—’’‘”–•–Š‡•–—†›̵•

‹–‡”’”‡–‹˜‹•˜‹‡™’‘‹–Ǥ‘†‡–‡”‹‡–Š‡•‡˜‡”‹–›‘ˆ…”‹‹ƒŽ•ƒ…–‹‘•‹’‘•‡†„›

–Š‡ ‰‘˜‡”‡– ‘ˆ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‘ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• ™Š‘ —•‡† –‘ ”‡•‹•– –Š‡ …‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ

’‘Ž‹…‹‡• †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† „› –Š‡ ‰‘˜‡”‡– ‹ –Š‡ …‘–‡š– ‘ˆ ’—„Ž‹… ‹–‡”‡•–•ǡ †ƒ–ƒ ™ƒ•

…‘ŽŽ‡…–‡† ˆ”‘ ˜ƒ”‹‘—• ‘Ž‹‡ •‘—”…‡•ǡ ‹…Ž—†‹‰ ǡ ‡‹ Ž‹‡ǡ ‡•– ƒ™ǡ

’”‹‰‡”ǡ‹Ž‡›Ž‹‡ǡƒ›Ž‘”Ƭ ”ƒ…‹•ǡƒ†‘–Š‡”ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†‘Ž‹‡†ƒ–ƒ„ƒ•‡•ˆ‘”

–Š‹• •–—†›Ǥ ‡˜‡”ƒŽ Žƒ™• ‘” ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘•ǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‘•–‹–—–‹‘ǡ ƒ† —ƒ

‹‰Š–•™‡”‡…‘•‹†‡”‡†ˆ‘”–Š‹•’—”’‘•‡Ǥ‡”–ƒ‹Ž‡‰ƒŽ†‘…—‡–•™‡”‡ƒŽ•‘‡š’Ž‘”‡†

–‘‘„–ƒ‹–Š‡†‡•‹”‡†‘„Œ‡…–‹˜‡•ƒ†Œ—•–‹ˆ›–Š‡”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‘ †—”‹‰ƒ‰Ž‘„ƒŽ

†‹•ƒ•–‡”•—…Šƒ•–Š‡…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ’ƒ†‡‹…Ǥ 3. Literature Review

3.1. Democratic view of freedom of expression

†‡‘…”ƒ–‹… …—Ž–—”‡ ‹• ‘‡ ‹ ™Š‹…Š ‡˜‡”›‘‡ Šƒ• ƒ ‡“—ƒŽ ‘’’‘”–—‹–› –‘

’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‡ ‹ –Š‡ ‡ƒ‹‰Ǧƒ‹‰ ’”‘…‡••‡• –Šƒ– †‡ˆ‹‡ –Š‡‹” ‹†‡–‹–‹‡• ƒ•

’‡”•‘• ȋŠ‹•‘ǡ ʹͲʹͳȌǤ ˜‡”›‘‡ …ƒ ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‡ ‹ –Š‡ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ƒ†

†‹ˆˆ—•‹‘ ‘ˆ …—Ž–—”‡ ȋ›…Šƒ™•ƒǦ‹‹ƒ”•ƒǡ ʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ  ‡’—„Ž‹…ƒ ‘” ’”‘‰”‡••‹˜‡

˜‹‡™•‘ˆˆ”‡‡•’‡‡…Šǡ–Š‡”‡Ž‡˜ƒ…‡‘ˆ‘’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ‡š’”‡••‹‘ǡ’‘’—Žƒ”…—Ž–—”‡ǡƒ†

‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ Ž‹„‡”–› ‹• –›’‹…ƒŽŽ› —†‡”‡•–‹ƒ–‡† ȋ„„ƒ• Ƭ —„ƒ‹”ǡ ʹͲʹͲȌǤ  ƒ

’‡”•‘ƒŽ Ž‡˜‡Žǡ ™Š‡ ‹– …‘–”‹„—–‡• –‘ ƒ ’‡”•‘̵• ‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡– ƒ† ƒ• ƒ

’‹ŽŽƒ” ‘ˆ ƒ †‡‘…”ƒ–‹… •‘…‹‡–›ǡ ‹–‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ Žƒ™ …‘•‹†‡”• –Š‡ ”‹‰Š– –‘ ‡š’”‡••

‘‡̵• –Š‘—‰Š–• ƒ† „‡Ž‹‡ˆ• –‘ „‡ ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ ˆ”‡‡Ž› ȋ‘™‹‡ǡ ʹͲͳͺȌǤ ”‘ ƒ

”‡’—„Ž‹…ƒ…‘…‡”™‹–Š•—•–ƒ‹‹‰†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…’”‘…‡†—”‡ƒ††‡‘…”ƒ–‹…†‡„ƒ–‡ǡ

•‘‡‡ƒ”Ž‹‡”•–—†‹‡•Šƒ˜‡’”‘’‘•‡†ƒ‰”‡ƒ–‡”’”‘„Ž‡™‹–Š‡‡’‹‰ƒ†ˆ‘•–‡”‹‰

ƒ†‡‘…”ƒ–‹……—Ž–—”‡ȋƒŽ‹ǡʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ‹‰‹–ƒŽ–‡…Š‘Ž‘‰‹‡•ƒŽ–‡”–Š‡•‘…‹‘‡…‘‘‹…

†‹ˆˆ‹…—Ž–‹‡• ‘ˆ •’‡‡…Š ‹ –Š‡ †‹‰‹–ƒŽ ‡”ƒǡ ”‡•—Ž–‹‰ ‹ ‡™ •‘…‹ƒŽ †‹•’—–‡• ‘˜‡”

‘™‡”•Š‹’ƒ†…‘–”‘Ž‘ˆ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ™‡ƒŽ–Šȋƒ”‹ǡƒšƒƒƒŠƒ†›ǡƬ‹†ƒ›ƒ–ǡ ʹͲʹʹȌǤ‡”•‘ƒŽ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘‹…”‡ƒ–‹‰ƒ††‹••‡‹ƒ–‹‰…—Ž–—”‡‹••‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–Ž›

‡Šƒ…‡†‹–Š‡†‹‰‹–ƒŽ‡”ƒȋƒ”‹‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲʹʹȌǡ•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–Ž›”ƒ‹•‹‰–Š‡Ž‹‡Ž‹Š‘‘†

‘ˆƒ…Š‹‡˜‹‰ƒ–”—Ž›†‡‘…”ƒ–‹……—Ž–—”‡Ǥ

‘˜‡”•‡Ž›ǡ–Š‡•ƒ‡–‡…Š‘Ž‘‰›…ƒ”‡•—Ž–‹‹‘˜ƒ–‹˜‡…‘–”‘Ž–ƒ…–‹…•–Šƒ–ƒ›

”‡•–”‹…–†‡‘…”ƒ–‹……—Ž–—”ƒŽ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘Ǥ‘‡’”‡˜‹‘—••–—†‹‡•Šƒ˜‡ƒ”‰—‡†–Šƒ––Š‡

†‡‘…”ƒ–‹… ƒ’’”‘ƒ…Š ƒ…‘™Ž‡†‰‡• ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ƒ† ‰”‘—’ ƒ—–‘‘›ǡ –Š‡ ”‹‰Š– –‘

‘™ –Š‡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ ’—„Ž‹… ‹–‡”‡•–ǡ ƒ† –Š‡ ‡‡† ˆ‘” ‘™Ž‡†‰‡ ˆ‘” ‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡

†‡‘…”ƒ–‹……‘–”‘Ž‘ˆ‰‘˜‡”‡–ƒ•–Š‡„ƒ•‹•ˆ‘”–Š‡”‹‰Š––‘ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘

ȋ‘–…Š‡˜ƒ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲʹͲǢƒ”Ž••‘ǡʹͲͳͻȌǤ̵‡‹ŽŽ›ȋʹͲͳ͸Ȍƒ†‡•–”‡’‘ȋʹͲͳ͵ȌŠƒ˜‡

ƒ”‰—‡† –Šƒ– ‹– ‹• ƒ’’”‘’”‹ƒ–‡ ˆ‘” –Š‡ ‰‘˜‡”‡– –‘ ‘ˆˆ‡” ƒ ˜‡—‡ ˆ‘” ƒ •‡”‹‘—•

…‘˜‡”•ƒ–‹‘ ‘ ƒ……‘’Ž‹•Š‹‰ –Š‡ ‰‘ƒŽ• ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ ’‹ŽŽƒ”• ƒ– ƒ –‹‡ ™Š‡ ’”‹˜ƒ–‡

’‘™‡”• ‰”ƒ˜‡Ž› –Š”‡ƒ–‡ –Š‡Ǥ †‡‘…”ƒ–‹… …‘•–‹–—–‹‘ƒŽ ‘”†‡” …ƒ‘– •—”˜‹˜‡

™‹–Š‘—– ˆ”‡‡†‘ ‘ˆ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹• ‡…‡••ƒ”› –‘ ’”‘–‡…– ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ”‹‰Š–•

‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡Ž›ȋ‹Ï‰‘”ƒŒ•‹ǡʹͲʹʹȌǤ’”‡˜‹‘—•‡˜ƒŽ—ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡‹ˆŽ—‡…‡‘ˆˆƒ‡‡™•‘

‹‰‡”‹ƒ̵• †‡‘…”ƒ…› ™Š‹Ž‡ ’”‡•‡”˜‹‰ –Š‡ ”‹‰Š– –‘ ˆ”‡‡ •’‡‡…ŠǤ ‹‰‡”‹ƒ ’”ƒ…–‹…‡•

†‡‘…”ƒ…›ǡ Œ‘‹‹‰ ‘–Š‡” ƒ–‹‘• ‰Ž‘„ƒŽŽ› ‹ ’”‘˜‹†‹‰ ƒ ˆ‘”— ˆ‘” ‹–• …‹–‹œ‡• –‘

‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Šǡ Š‘Ž†ǡ ƒ† ‡š’”‡•• –Š‡‹” ˜‹‡™• –‘ ’”‘‘–‡ ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘ ‹ ‰‘‘†

ƒ†‹‹•–”ƒ–‹‘ȋ‹Ž•‘Ƭƒ”ǡʹͲͳͻȌǤ•–—†›…‘†—…–‡†‹†‘‡•‹ƒ”‡˜‡ƒŽ‡†–Šƒ–

ƒŽ–Š‘—‰Š ‘†‡”ƒ–‡ —•Ž‹ Ž‡ƒ†‡”• ‹ ‡•– ƒ˜ƒ †‡ˆ‡† ƒ† ˜ƒŽ—‡ ˆ”‡‡†‘ ‘ˆ

‡š’”‡••‹‘ƒ•‘‡‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽŠ—ƒ”‹‰Š–•ǡ–Š‡›‘’’‘•‡‹–•—•‡–‘•’”‡ƒ†Šƒ–‡

•’‡‡…Šȋ—•‹ǡʹͲͳͻȌǤ

3.2. Limitations of freedom of expression

”‡‡†‘ ‘ˆ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ ‹• ‡…‡••ƒ”› ˆ‘” ˆ—ŽŽ ’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘ ‹ †‡‘…”ƒ…› ƒ† ˆ‘”

‡š’”‡••‹‰‘—”–Š‘—‰Š–•ȋƒƒŽ‹Ƭƒ•‘‘ŽǡʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ‘‡–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ–Š‡•–ƒ–‡ƒ›”‡•–”‹…– …‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘ˆ”‡‡†‘ˆ‘””‡ƒ•‘••—…Šƒ•’—„Ž‹…‘”ƒŽ‹–›ǡ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘Š‡ƒŽ–Šǡ‘”

ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ •‡…—”‹–› ȋ‘‘”Š‘‘ˆǡ ʹͲʹͲȌǤ —–ǡ ‹•–ƒ…‡• ™‘”Ž†™‹†‡ †‡‘•–”ƒ–‡ –Šƒ–

ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘‹••—•…‡’–‹„Ž‡–‘ƒ”„‹–”ƒ”›”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•ȋ‡‹‰‡”Ƭœ›—‡‘ǡ ʹͲͳͺǢ —ƒ–‹ŽŽ‡‡ǡ ʹͲʹͳȌǤ ‘‡ Š‹•–‘”‹…ƒŽ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š Šƒ• •Š‘™ –Šƒ– ”‡•–”‹…–‹‰ –Š‡

ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘‘ˆ‹‘”‹–‹‡•ƒ††‹••‡–‹‰˜‘‹…‡•…‘—Ž†Š‹†‡”–Š‡•–ƒ–‡̵•

ƒ„‹Ž‹–›–‘ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡ƒŒ‘”‹–ƒ”‹ƒ‰‘ƒŽ•‘”ˆ—Žˆ‹ŽŽ‹–•„‡‡ˆ‹…‡–‘„Ž‹‰ƒ–‹‘•ȋ‘‘†‹ǡʹͲͳ͹Ǣ

—ƒ–‹ŽŽ‡‡ǡ ʹͲʹͳȌǤ Š‡ —”‘’‡ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡– Šƒ• ’—– —™ƒ””ƒ–‡† Ž‹‹–• ‘

‹–‡”‡–•’‡‡…Šˆ”‡‡†‘ǤŠ‡ƒŒ‘”‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‡ƒ•—”‡•˜‹‘Žƒ–‡–Š‡ˆ”‹…ƒŠƒ”–‡”Ǥ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘…‘•–”ƒ‹–•‹…Ž—†‡•‹–‡”‡–•Š—–†‘™•ǡŽƒ™•„ƒ‹‰Šƒ–‡

•’‡‡…Šƒ††‹•‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ”‡’”‡••‹˜‡Ž‡‰‹•Žƒ–‹‘ǡƒ†‹–‡”‡–…‡•‘”•Š‹’ȋ›ƒŽ‡™ǡ ʹͲʹͲȌǤ

3.3. Limitations of freedom of expression during covid-19

ƒ› Šƒœƒ”†• –‘ Œ‘—”ƒŽ‹•–•̵ •ƒˆ‡–› Šƒ˜‡ ‡‡”‰‡† †—‡ –‘ ‡™ –‡…Š‘Ž‘‰›Ǥ

‘”‡‘˜‡”ǡ †—‡ –‘ –Š‡ ‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ ’ƒ†‡‹…ǡ ‡†‹ƒ ™‘”‡”• Šƒ˜‡ ‹…”‡ƒ•‹‰Ž›

–”ƒ•ˆ‡””‡†–Š‡‹”Œ‘„‘Ž‹‡ǡŽ‡ƒ˜‹‰–Š‡‘”‡•—•…‡’–‹„Ž‡–‘…›„‡”–Š”‡ƒ–•ƒ†

ƒ––ƒ…•Ǥ‘‡”‡‰‹‡•‡’Ž‘›…‘‘”†‹ƒ–‡†‹–‹‹†ƒ–‹‘‡–Š‘†•ƒ‰ƒ‹•–’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ

‘’’‘‡–•ǡ ”‡•—Ž–‹‰ ‹ •‡ŽˆǦ…‡•‘”•Š‹’ ƒ† ƒ …Š‹ŽŽ‹‰ ‡ˆˆ‡…– ‘ ˆ”‡‡†‘ ‘ˆ

‡š’”‡••‹‘ ‹ ‰‡‡”ƒŽ ȋ‡†‹… Ƭ ‘•œ–‘›‹ǡ ʹͲʹͲȌǤ ‘‡ …‘—–”‹‡• ’”‹‘”‹–‹œ‡†

†‹••‡‹ƒ–‹‰ –”—–Šˆ—Ž ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ –‘ Ž‹‹– –Š‡ •’”‡ƒ† ‘ˆ Ǧͳͻ

‹•‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ȋƒ”ƒ‹…‘Žƒ•ǡʹͲʹͳȌǡ™Š‹Ž‡‘–Š‡”•Œƒ‹Ž‡†ƒ†’”‘•‡…—–‡†”‡•‹†‡–•

ƒ† ‡†‹ƒ ™Š‘ •’‘‡ ‘—– ƒ„‘—– –Š‡ ˜‹”—• ‘” –Š‡ ‰‘˜‡”‡–̵• ”‡•’‘•‡ –‘ –Š‡

‡’‹†‡‹…ȋ’ƒ†ƒ”‘ǡʹͲʹͲȌǤ‘‡–Š‡Ž‡••ǡ‹–‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽŽƒ™’”‘–‡…–•–Š‡”‹‰Š––‘ˆ”‡‡

•’‡‡…Šǡ ƒ† ”‡’”‹•ƒŽ ˆ‘” ‡š’”‡••‹‘ ”ƒ‹•‡• Š—ƒ ”‹‰Š–• …‘…‡”• ȋ‘‡”ƒœ Ƭ …Š™‹†ǡʹͲʹͳȌǤ‘‡’‡”•‘•™Š‘ƒ”‡ˆ—”‹‘—•ƒ„‘—–’‘Ž‹–‹…•‘”–Š‡‹’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ

Ǧͳͻ ƒ”‡ ’”‡•‡–Ž› –Š”‡ƒ–‡‹‰ –‘ ™‡ƒ’‘‹œ‡ ƒ† †‹•–‘”– –Š‡ …‘…‡’– ‘ˆ

ˆ”‡‡†‘ȋ•ƒƒ…•ǡʹͲʹʹȌǤ—”‹‰–Š‡’ƒ†‡‹…ǡˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘™ƒ•

…”‹‹ƒŽ‹œ‡†‹ ‘•– ƒ–‹‘•ǡ‹…Ž—†‹‰†‘‡•‹ƒǤ —…Š‘˜‡•™‡”‡ …‘•‹†‡”‡†

‡˜‹†‡…‡ ‘ˆ ’”‡•• ƒ† ‡†‹ƒ ˆ”‡‡†‘ …‘•–”ƒ‹–•Ǥ • Œ—•–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘ ˆ‘” –Š‡

”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‘ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘ǡ–Š‡†‘‡•‹ƒ‰‘˜‡”‡–…‹–‡†…‘ŽŽ‡…–‹˜‡

…‘…‡”••—…Šƒ•’—„Ž‹…‘”†‡”ƒ†Š‡ƒŽ–Šȋ–‘‘ǡʹͲʹͳȌǤ 4. Results and Discussion

4.1. FOE in Indonesia

”‡ˆ‡”• –‘ –Š‡ ˆ—†ƒ‡–ƒŽ ”‹‰Š–• –Šƒ– ‡…‘’ƒ•• •‘…‹‡–ƒŽ ƒ† ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ

‡Ž‡‡–•Ǥ‘…”‡ƒ–‡ƒ•ƒˆ‡ƒ†Š‡ƒŽ–Š›‡˜‹”‘‡–ˆ‘”‹–•”‡•‹†‡–•ǡ–Š‡•‡”‹‰Š–•ƒ”‡

‡••‡–‹ƒŽˆ‘”ƒ›ƒ–‹‘Ǥ•ƒ†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…ƒ–‹‘ǡ†‘‡•‹ƒ’”‘‘–‡•–Š‡‹†‡ƒŽ•‘ˆ

˜‹‰‘”‘—•Ž›Ǥ ‡–ǡ …‘–‹—ƒŽ ƒ†˜ƒ…‡• ‹ ‹†—•–”› ͶǤͲ –‡…Š‘Ž‘‰‹‡• Šƒ˜‡ ‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡†

•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒ’Žƒ–ˆ‘”•ƒ†–Š‡‹–‡”‡––‘’”‘‘–‡ ƒ‘‰–Š‡‰‡‡”ƒŽ’—„Ž‹…Ǥ ……‘”†‹‰–‘–Š‡‹‹•–”›‘ˆ‘—‹…ƒ–‹‘ƒ†ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ–Š‡—„‡”‘ˆ‹–‡”‡–

—•‡”•‹ʹͲʹͲ”‘•‡–‘ͳ͹ͷǤͷ‹ŽŽ‹‘ȋ—‹—• ‡”ƒ†‘‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲʹʹȌǤŠ‹•ƒˆˆ‘”†•–Š‡•‡

’‡”•‘••‡˜‡”ƒŽ‘’–‹‘•ˆ‘”ˆ”‡‡•’‡‡…ŠǤ……‘”†‹‰–‘ƒ†‡”ȋʹͲͳͻȌǡ–Š‡‹–‡”‡–Šƒ•

ƒ••‹•–‡†‹ƒ‹‰‘™Ž‡†‰‡‘”‡ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡–‘’‡‘’Ž‡ǡ‡…‘—”ƒ‰‹‰–Š‡–‘•Šƒ”‡

–Š‡‹”˜‹‡™•ƒ†–Š‘—‰Š–•Ǥ‡•’‹–‡–Š‡’”‡•‡…‡‘ˆ’‘•‹–‹˜‡ƒ–‡”‹ƒŽ‘•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒ

’Žƒ–ˆ‘”•ǡ ƒ ˜ƒ”‹‡–› ‘ˆ ‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ‹• ƒŽ•‘ –Š‡”‡ǡ ™Š‹…Š ‹ˆŽ—‡…‡• —•‡”•̵

‘˜‡”ƒŽŽ’‡”…‡’–‹‘•Ǥ

ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ…›„‡”’”‹˜ƒ…›’”‘˜‹†‡•ƒ•‡…—”‡ƒ–‘•’Š‡”‡‹™Š‹…Š‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•…ƒ

ˆ”‡‡Ž› ‡š’”‡•• –Š‡‹” ˜‹‡™• ƒ† ‘’‹‹‘•Ǥ †‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• –›’‹…ƒŽŽ› ˆ‡‡Ž Ž‹„‡”ƒ–‡† ƒ†

…‘•–”—…–‹˜‡™Š‡’”‡•‡–‹‰–Š‡•‡Ž˜‡•‘•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒǤƒ™—„‡”Ǥͳͻ‘ˆ–Š‡

ƒ™ȋʹͲͳ͸Ȍ’”‹ƒ”‹Ž›•—’’‘”–‡†–Š‡ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ•’‡‡…Š‘ˆ’‡”•‘•‘–Š‡‹–‡”‡–ƒ†

‘–Š‡”•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒ’Žƒ–ˆ‘”•ȋœ‹œ‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲʹʹȌǤŠ‹•Šƒ•ƒŽ•‘’”‘‘–‡†ƒ‡–Š‹…ƒŽǡ

Š‡ƒŽ–Š›ǡ…Ž‡ƒǡƒ†’”‘†—…–‹˜‡†‹‰‹–ƒŽ‡˜‹”‘‡–ˆ‘”—•‡”•Ǥ˜‡”ͺͲͲǡͲͲͲ™‡„•‹–‡•

‹†‘‡•‹ƒƒ”‡†‡–‡”‹‡†–‘†‹••‡‹ƒ–‡ˆƒ‡‡™•‘”Šƒ–‡•’‡‡…Šǡ’”‘’–‹‰–Š‡

†‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡– –‘ –ƒ‡ •‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ– •–‡’• –‘ …‘„ƒ– –Š‡•‡ ‹••—‡•Ǥ ‹‰—”‡ ʹ

†‡’‹…–••‡˜‡”ƒŽ‹•–ƒ…‡•‘ˆ ‹†‘‡•‹ƒˆ”‘ʹͲʹͲ–‘ʹͲʹͳǤȋ„Š‹’”ƒ›ƒǡƒŠŽ‡˜‹ǡ Ƭ ”—”‘„„‹ǡ ʹͲʹͲȌǤ Š‡ ‹–‡”‡– ƒ”‡ƒ ‹ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‹˜‡• ‘”‡ ‘’–‹‘• ˆ‘”

‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•–‘…‘—‹…ƒ–‡–Š‡‹”–Š‘—‰Š–•ƒ†‹†‡ƒ•–Šƒ‡†‹ƒǡ•…‹‡–‹ˆ‹…†‹•…‘—”•‡ǡ

’—„Ž‹… ‘’‹‹‘ǡ ƒ† Œ—†‹…‹ƒŽ –‡•–‹‘›Ǥ  ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ …‘•–‹–—–‹‘

’”‘‘–‡• ˆ”‡‡†‘ ‘ˆ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ –‘ ‡•—”‡ –Š‡ ˆ—Žˆ‹ŽŽ‡– ‘ˆ Š—ƒ ”‹‰Š–• ƒ† –‘

‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Šƒ•—……‡••ˆ—Ž†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…•–ƒ–‡Ǥ

‹‰—”‡ʹǤ ‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ†‘‡•‹ƒȋʹͲʹͲ–‘ʹͲʹͳȌ

‘—”…‡ǣ̶ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘‹••‹‘‘—ƒ‹‰Š–•̶

4.2. Indonesian Law and FOE during Covid-19

Š‡ƒƒŽ›•‹•‘ˆ˜ƒ”‹‘—•Ž‡‰ƒŽ†‘…—‡–•ˆ‘”–Š‹••–—†›…‘–”‹„—–‡†–‘‹†‡–‹ˆ›‹‰

•‡˜‡”ƒŽ Žƒ™• ‘” •–ƒ–—–‡• –Šƒ– ’”‘‘–‡ ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘• ‘ ‹ –Š‡ …‘–‡š– ‘ˆ ’—„Ž‹…

‹–‡”‡•–Ǥ”–‹…Ž‡ͳͻ‘ˆ–Š‡–‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘˜‡ƒ–‘‹˜‹Žƒ†‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ‹‰Š–•ȋȌ

’‡”‹–•–Š‡•–ƒ–‡–‘”‡•–”‹…––Š‡”‹‰Š––‘ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ’—„Ž‹…

Š‡ƒŽ–Š‘”…‘ŽŽ‡…–‹˜‡‹–‡”‡•–•Ǥƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ”–‹…Ž‡ͳͲ‘ˆ–Š‡—”‘’‡ƒ‘˜‡–‹‘‘

—ƒ ‹‰Š–• ȋȌ Šƒ• ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡† ˆ‘” ”‡•–”‹…–‹‰ ‹ –‹‡• ‘ˆ ‰Ž‘„ƒŽ

…ƒ–ƒ•–”‘’Š‡ ‘” ’—„Ž‹… Š‡ƒŽ–Š ‡‡”‰‡…› ȋ†”ƒ›ƒ–‹ Ƭ ƒ”ƒ•™ƒ–‹ǡ ʹͲʹʹǢ ”ƒ–‹™‹ǡ ʹͲʹʹȌǤƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ†‘‡•‹ƒŽƒ™Šƒ•‡ƒ…–‡†…‡”–ƒ‹…”‹‹ƒŽ‡ƒ•—”‡•ˆ‘”•‘…‹ƒŽ

ƒ…–‹‘• –Šƒ– ƒ› ƒˆˆ‡…– –Š‡ †‹••‡‹ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ †‡ˆƒƒ–‹‘ǡ Šƒ–‡ •’‡‡…Šǡ ‘” ˆƒŽ•‡

‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‘•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒ’Žƒ–ˆ‘”•ǤŠ‡•‡Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡‘—–Ž‹‡†‹–Š‡̶”‹‹ƒŽ

‘†‡ ƒ™̶ ȋȌ ȋ”–‹…Ž‡•Ǥ ͵ͳͲ ƒ† ͵ͳͳȌǤ ‡–ǡ ”–‹…Ž‡ ʹ͹ȋ͵Ȍ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ƒ™ ƒŽ•‘

‡’Šƒ•‹œ‡••‘…‹‡–ƒŽŽ‹‹–•‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ’—„Ž‹…Š‡ƒŽ–Š‘”†‡”ƒ†’—„Ž‹…‹–‡”‡•–•Ǥ

‡–ǡ†‘‡•‹ƒŠƒ•‘–„‡‡‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡‡‘—‰Š–‘Œ—•–‹ˆ›–Š‡•‡”‡•–”‹…–‹‘• ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‹‰

‹–‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‘”•ȋ‘ŠƒǡʹͲʹͳȌǤ

—”‹‰–Š‡…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ’ƒ†‡‹…ǡŠ‘™‡˜‡”ǡƒƒŒ‘”‹…”‡ƒ•‡‹…”‹–‹…‹•ǡ–Š”‡ƒ–•ǡƒ†

‹–‡”‡– ƒ––ƒ…• ƒ‰ƒ‹•– ‰‘˜‡”‡– ’‘Ž‹…› ™ƒ• ”‡…‘”†‡†ǡ ˆ—”–Š‡” …‘’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‰

ƒ––‡”•ˆ‘”•‡˜‡”ƒŽ‰‘˜‡”‡–ƒ†…‘”’‘”ƒ–‡‹•–‹–—–‹‘•Ǥ‹‹Žƒ”…‘†‹–‹‘•Šƒ˜‡

ƒŽ•‘ ’”‘’–‡† ‰‘˜‡”‡– ’‡”•‘‡Ž –‘ ‡‰ƒ‰‡ ‹ †”—‰ –”ƒˆˆ‹…‹‰ǡ ”‡•—Ž–‹‰ ‹

†‡–”‹‡–ƒŽ…‘•‡“—‡…‡•ȋƒǯ†‹›ƒŠǡʹͲʹͳǢ›••‡–ǡʹͲͳͻȌǤŠ‡”‡™‡”‡†‹‰‹–ƒŽƒ––ƒ…•

‘‹†‡’‡†‡–‡†‹ƒ‘”‰ƒ‹œƒ–‹‘•–Šƒ–ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡†ˆ‘”–Š‡”‹‰Š–•‘ˆ‹‘”‹–‹‡•ƒ†

™‘‡Ǥ  •‘‡ ‡†‹ƒ ‘—–Ž‡–•ǡ Œ‘—”ƒŽ‹•–• ™‡”‡ Šƒ”ƒ••‡† ˆ‘” ‡š’”‡••‹‰ –Š‡‹”

‘’‹‹‘• ‘Ž‹‡Ǥ ‹‹Žƒ”Ž›ǡ –Š‡ †‹‰‹–ƒŽ Šƒ…‹‰ ‘ˆ –™‘ ‡™• ™‡„•‹–‡• ‹ †‘‡•‹ƒ

ȋ‹…Ž—†‹‰‹”–‘Ǥ‹†ƒ†‡’‘Ǥ…‘Ȍ…‘•–‹–—–‡†ƒ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘‘ ‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ

–Š‡…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ‡‡”‰‡…›Ǥ‡˜‡”ƒŽ‡™•‡–™‘”•™‡”‡”‡•’‘•‹„Ž‡ˆ‘”†‹••‡‹ƒ–‹‰

ˆƒŽ•‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰–Š‡‘—–„”‡ƒ‘ˆ…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻƒ†”‡Žƒ–‡††ƒ–ƒǡ‹…‹–‹‰’—„Ž‹…

…‘ˆ—•‹‘ ȋ‘‡”ƒœ Ƭ …Š™‹†ǡ ʹͲʹͳǢ ‡‰—•ǡ ƒ’—‰ǡ Ƭ ‡ŽƒŠ—–ǡ ʹͲʹʹȌǤ Š‹•

•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–Ž›‹’ƒ…–‡†–Š‡‡–ƒŽŠ‡ƒŽ–Š‘ˆ–Š‡†‘‡•‹ƒ’‘’—Žƒ–‹‘ǡ…‘’‡ŽŽ‹‰–Š‡

‰‘˜‡”‡––‘–ƒ‡•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–•–‡’•–‘‘—–Žƒ™–Š‡•‡…Šƒ‡Ž•Ǥ‘–Š‡”‹•–ƒ…‡‘ˆ

ƒ˜‹‘ƒ–”ƒ™ƒ•‘„•‡”˜‡†‹–Š‹•‡˜‹”‘‡–ǣƒŠ—ƒ”‹‰Š–•ƒ…–‹˜‹•–ƒ†’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ

•…Š‘Žƒ”Ǥ‡™ƒ•Š—‹Ž‹ƒ–‡†ˆ‘”•’‡ƒ‹‰‘—–‘•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒ’Žƒ–ˆ‘”•ƒ„‘—–ƒ›

•‘…‹ƒŽǦ’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ–‘’‹…•Ǥƒ–‡”ǡ‹–™ƒ•†‹•…‘˜‡”‡†–Šƒ–Š‹•Šƒ–•ƒ’’ƒ……‘—–Šƒ†„‡‡

Šƒ…‡†ǡ™Š‹…ŠŽ‡†–‘…”‹–‹…‹•‘ˆ–Š‡‰‘˜‡”‡–̵•‡ˆˆ‘”–•–‘’”‡˜‡––Š‡•’”‡ƒ†‘ˆ

…‘˜‹†ǦͳͻǤŠ—•ǡ–Š‡•‡‹•–ƒ…‡•™‡”‡’”‘•‡…—–‡†—†‡”–Š‡–”‡ƒ•‘•–ƒ–—–‡ȋ‘•–Ž›

ˆ‘…—•‹‰‘”–‹…Ž‡•ͳͳͲƒ†ͳͲ͸‘ˆ–Š‡Ȍȋ‘•‡–‹‘ǡʹͲʹͳǢƒ’—„‘Ž‘ǡʹͲʹʹȌǤ

Š‹• ‰‡‡”ƒ–‡† ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ …‘…‡”• ˆ‘” ‡•–› –‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ ƒ† ‘–Š‡”

‘”‰ƒ‹œƒ–‹‘•ǤŠ‡•‡˜‹‘Žƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–Š‡ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆš’”‡••‹‘™‡”‡”‡Žƒ–‡†–‘Žƒ™Ǥ

‡…‡ǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡– …‘•‹†‡”‡† –Šƒ– –Š‡•‡ ‡šƒ’Ž‡• …‘–”‹„—–‡† –‘

…”‹–‹…‹• ‘ˆ ‰‘˜‡”‡– ’‘Ž‹…‹‡• †‡•‹‰‡† –‘ ’”‘–‡…– ’—„Ž‹… Š‡ƒŽ–Š ƒ† ‹–‡”‡•–•

†—”‹‰ –Š‡ …‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ ’ƒ†‡‹…ǡ –Š‡”‡„› ‡‰ƒ–‹˜‡Ž› †ƒƒ‰‹‰ ’—„Ž‹… ’‡”…‡’–‹‘•

†—”‹‰–Š‡…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ‡’‹†‡‹…Ǥ

†‡””–‹…Ž‡ʹͲ͹‘ˆ–Š‡‘’—–‡””‹‡•ƒ™ǡ–Š‘•‡™Š‘‹•—Ž–‡†–Š‡’”‡•‹†‡–

‘ˆ†‘‡•‹ƒƒ†…‘‹––‡†…›„‡”…”‹‡•™‹ŽŽ„‡‹’”‹•‘‡†ˆ‘”•‹š–‘–™‡Ž˜‡‘–Š•Ǥ

Š‹• ƒ••‹•–‡† ‹ –Š‡ ’”‡˜‡–‹‘ ‘ˆ ˜ƒ”‹‘—• †‹‰‹–ƒŽ ƒ––ƒ…•Ǥ ‡–ǡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ˆ‘”‡‹‰

’‘Ž‹…›ƒŽ•‘ƒ••‡”–‡†–Šƒ–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒ’Žƒ–ˆ‘”•ȋ•—…Šƒ•™‹––‡”ǡ•–ƒ‰”ƒǡ

ƒ† ƒ…‡„‘‘Ȍ ™‡”‡ ”‡•’‘•‹„Ž‡ ˆ‘” ’”‘‘–‹‰ ƒ–‹ǦŠ‹‡•‡ –Š‡‘”‹‡•ǡ –Š‡”‡„›

‹’ƒ…–‹‰ –Š‡ ”‡Žƒ–‹‘•Š‹’ „‡–™‡‡ Š‹ƒ ƒ† †‘‡•‹ƒ ȋŽǦ ƒ–‹Š Ƭ —”‹ƒ™ƒǡ ʹͲʹͳȌǤŠ‹•Š‡Ž’•Ž‡‰‹–‹‹œ‡’”‘‘–‹‰˜ƒ”‹‘—• ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘•‹†‘‡•‹ƒ†—”‹‰

…‘˜‹†ǦͳͻǤ

4.3. Justification for Restrictions on FOE during Covid-19

Š‡‡‡”‰‡…‡‘ˆ–Š‡…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ’ƒ†‡‹…Šƒ•’”‘’–‡† •‡˜‡”ƒŽƒ–‹‘•–‘–ƒ‡

•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‡ƒ•—”‡•–‘•Š—–†‘™–Š‡‹–‡”‡–ƒ†‘–Š‡”•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒŽ‹•–‘’”‡˜‡–

–Š‡ •’”‡ƒ† ‘ˆ …‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ Š‘ƒš‡•Ǥ Š‡•‡ ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘• ’”‘˜‹†‡ –Š‡ ’—„Ž‹… ™‹–Š ”‡Ž‹ƒ„Ž‡

‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ȋ›••‡–ǡ ʹͲͳͻȌǤ Š‹• •–”ƒ–‡‰› Šƒ• ƒŽ•‘ Š‡Ž’‡† ‡‡’ Œ‘—”ƒŽ‹•–• ˆ”‘

’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‰ˆƒ‡‡™•ǤŠ‹•†‹•…‘—”ƒ‰‡•–Š‡„”‡ƒ…Š‘ˆ „›’”‡˜‡–‹‰’‡”•‘•

ˆ”‘ ‡š’”‡••‹‰ –Š‡‹” ‘’‹‹‘• ”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰ –Š‡ …‹”…—•–ƒ…‡ ȋŠ”ƒ‘˜ƒǡ ʹͲʹͲȌǤ

ˆ‘”–—ƒ–‡Ž›ǡ ƒ› …‘—–”‹‡• Žƒ… ƒ •’‡…‹ˆ‹… •–ƒ–—–‡ ‘” ”—Ž‡ –‘ Ž‡‰‹–‹‹œ‡ –Š‡•‡

’”‘Š‹„‹–‹‘•Ǥ‡…‡ǡ‰‘˜‡”‡–•—•–Œ—•–‹ˆ›–Š‡‹”ƒ…–‹˜‹–‹‡•™‹–Š‹–Š‡•‡Ž‹‹–•–‘

…‘˜‹…‡–Š‡’—„Ž‹…–Šƒ––Š‡•‡Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡‹–Š‡‹”„‡•–‹–‡”‡•–Ǥ‡–ǡ™Š‡ƒ•–ƒ–‡

…ƒ‘–Œ—•–‹ˆ›•—…Š”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•ƒ†‘‡ƒ‹‰ˆ—Ž”‡“—‹”‡‡–•ƒ”‡‘„•‡”˜‡†‹–Š‡

…‘–‡š–‘ˆ…‘•–”ƒ‹–•‘ ǡ’—„Ž‹…†‹•…‘–‡–‹…”‡ƒ•‡•ǡ‡šƒ…‡”„ƒ–‹‰–Š‡•‹–—ƒ–‹‘

ˆ‘”–Š‡‰‘˜‡”‡–ƒ†–Š‡’‡‘’Ž‡ȋ”ƒŠƒ••ƒ…‹––ƒƬƒ””‹•‘™‘ǡʹͲʹͳǢ‘ŽǡʹͲʹͳȌǤ

‡…‡ǡ–Š‡–”‹„—ƒŽ‘”…‘—”–•Š‘—Ž††‡–‡”‹‡–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ‡‹•—…Š…‹”…—•–ƒ…‡•Ǥ

Š‡–”‹„—ƒŽ‘”…‘—”–ƒ›‡’Ž‘›ƒƒŽ–‡”ƒ–‹˜‡Œ—•–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘•–”ƒ–‡‰›–‘‡š’Žƒ‹–Š‡•‡

”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‘ ȋ”‹›ƒ–‘Ƭƒ”†‹ǡʹͲʹͲȌǤ

”‘ –Š‡ ’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡ ‘ˆ …‘ŽŽ‡…–‹˜‡ ƒ† ’—„Ž‹… ‹–‡”‡•–•ǡ ƒ–‹‘• ‘–Š‡” –Šƒ

†‘‡•‹ƒƒŽ•‘…ƒ’ƒ‹‰‡†ˆ‘” …—”„•ǤŠ‡•‡ƒ”‰—‡–•ˆ”‡“—‡–Ž›Šƒ˜‡Œ—†‹…‹ƒŽ

‘”‘”ƒ–‹˜‡ˆŽƒ™•Ǥ‡‰ƒ”†‹‰‘”ƒ–‹˜‡’”‘…‡†—”‡•ƒ†™Š‡–Š‡”–Š‡›ƒ”‡ƒ†Š‡”‡†

–‘ ™Š‡ ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‹‰ •—…Š ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•ǡ –Š‹• •‹–—ƒ–‹‘ ”ƒ‹•‡• —‡”‘—• ’”‘„Ž‡•

ȋƒ–‡–ƒŽǤǡʹͲʹͲǢ›”œ›•ƒƬ‘…œ›Žƒ•ǡʹͲʹͲȌǤ–Š‡””‡ƒ•‘•…ƒƒŽ•‘„‡‘–‹…‡†

‹ –Š‡ …‘–‡š– ‘ˆ ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘• ‘ ǡ ”‡‰ƒ”†Ž‡•• ‘ˆ ™Š‡–Š‡” ‘” ‘– –Š‡› •‡”˜‡ –Š‡

’—„Ž‹… ‰‘‘†Ǥ —ƒ–‹ŽŽ‡‡ ȋʹͲʹͳȌ •–ƒ–‡• –™‘ …‘…‡”• ƒ”‡ ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š •–ƒ–‡

†‹•…”‡–‹‘Ǧ„ƒ•‡† ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘• ‘ Ǥ —’’‘•‡ǡ –‘ „‡‰‹ ™‹–Šǡ –Šƒ– –Š‡ •–ƒ–‡̵•

†‹•…”‡–‹‘™ƒ•—–‹Ž‹œ‡†•‘Ž‡Ž›–‘‡‡––Š‡‹–‡”‡•–•‘ˆƒŒ‘”‹–‹‡•Ǥ•—…Šƒ•…‡ƒ”‹‘ǡ‹–

…‘—Ž†‡…‘—”ƒ‰‡‹‘”‹–‹‡•ƒ†‘–Š‡”’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ‘’’‘‡–•–‘†‡ƒ†Œ—•–‹ˆ‹…ƒ–‹‘•ˆ‘”

”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‘ ‹’‘•‡†‹–Š‡ƒ‡‘ˆ’—„Ž‹…‘”†‡”ǡ‘”ƒŽ•ǡƒ–‹‘ƒŽ•‡…—”‹–›ǡ

ƒ†’—„Ž‹…Š‡ƒŽ–ŠǤŒ—•–Ž›”‡•–”‹…–‹‰ƒ’‡”•‘̵•ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘…‘—Ž†’‘•‡

ƒ–‹‘ƒŽ ’”‘„Ž‡•Ǥ Š‹• ”‹• …ƒ ‘……—” ™Š‡ –Š‡”‡ ‹• ‹•—ˆˆ‹…‹‡– ‡˜‹†‡…‡ ‘ˆ ƒ

‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ̵•’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘‹Šƒ”ˆ—Ž„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”Ǥ–Š‹•…ƒ•‡ǡ–Š‡•–ƒ–‡—•–‡š’Žƒ‹‹–•

‡ƒ•—”‡•ƒ‰ƒ‹•––Š‡ƒ••‘…‹ƒ–‡†‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ„›†‡‘•–”ƒ–‹‰Š‹•‹˜‘Ž˜‡‡–‹–Š‡

ƒŽŽ‡‰‡†˜‹‘Ž‡–ƒ…–‹˜‹–‹‡•ȋŽ‹˜‹ƒǡ‹„•‘ǡƬƒ•”—†‹ǡʹͲʹͲȌǤŠ‹•ƒŽ•‘Š‡Ž’••—’’‘”–

–Š‡‰‘˜‡”‡–̵•†‡…‹•‹‘•–‘”‡•–”‹…– ‹•’‡…‹ˆ‹……ƒ•‡•Ǥ

Š—•ǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡– Šƒ• –ƒ‡ ‡…‡••ƒ”› ƒ…–‹‘ ƒ‰ƒ‹•– ˜ƒ”‹‘—•

‡†‹ƒ’‡‘’Ž‡ǡŠ—ƒ”‹‰Š–•ƒ†˜‘…ƒ–‡•ǡƒ†‘–Š‡”•™Š‘’”‘‘–‡†ˆƒŽ•‡”—‘”•ƒ„‘—–

…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻ †ƒ–ƒǤ —”‹‰ …‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡– ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡† ƒ

̶‡‡”‰‡…› ’‘Ž‹…›̶ ”‡•–”‹…–‹‰ —‡”‘—• ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ•̵ Ǥ ‡–ǡ –Š‹• ’‘Ž‹…› ™ƒ•

ƒ†ƒ’–ƒ„Ž‡‡‘—‰Š–‘ƒ……‘‘†ƒ–‡–Š‡ƒ–‹‘̵•’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽƒ…–‹˜‹–‹‡•Ǥ 5. Conclusion and Recommendations

‹•ƒ‘‰–Š‡‘•–™‹†‡Ž›‡•’‘—•‡††‡‘…”ƒ–‹…‹†‡ƒŽ•‹˜ƒ”‹‘—•†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…

ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ”‘–‡…–‹‘ ƒ† ƒ’’Ž‹…ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‹• ’”‹…‹’Ž‡ ƒ”‡ ‡••‡–‹ƒŽ ˆ‘” ˆ‘•–‡”‹‰ ƒ

‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡…‘‡…–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‰‘˜‡”‡–ƒ†–Š‡’—„Ž‹…Ǥ–ƒŽ•‘ƒ‹†•‹’”‘‘–‹‰

‰‘˜‡”‡–‘’‡‡••Ǥ‡–ǡ–Š‡“—ƒŽ‹–›‘ˆ†‡‘…”ƒ…›Šƒ•†‡–‡”‹‘”ƒ–‡†•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–Ž›

‘˜‡”–Š‡›‡ƒ”•†—‡–‘˜ƒ”‹‘—•’‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽƒ†‡…‘‘‹…ˆƒ…–‘”•ǡ’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž›‹‡‡”‰‹‰

ƒ–‹‘•ȋ—ŽƒǦ‘œ‡Ƭ‡‹ˆ–‡”ǡʹͲʹͲȌǤŠ—•ǡ†—”‹‰ƒ‰Ž‘„ƒŽ…”‹•‹••—…Šƒ•…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻǡ …‘—–”‹‡•’Žƒ…‡…‡”–ƒ‹”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‘ ‹–Š‡’—„Ž‹…̵•‹–‡”‡•–Ǥ

‹‹Žƒ”Ž›ǡ –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ‰‘˜‡”‡– ‡•–ƒ„Ž‹•Š‡† •‡˜‡”ƒŽ Ž‹‹–• ‘ ǡ

’ƒ”–‹…—Žƒ”Ž›—†‡””–‹…Ž‡ͳʹ͹‘ˆ–Š‡•–ƒ–—–‡ƒ†”–‹…Ž‡•ͳͳͲƒ†ͳͲ͸‘ˆ–Š‡Ǥ

—”‹‰ …‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻǡ ƒŽŽ ‡†‹ƒ ’”‘ˆ‡••‹‘ƒŽ• ƒ† Œ‘—”ƒŽ‹•–• ™‡”‡ •—„Œ‡…– –‘ •–”‹…–

•—”˜‡‹ŽŽƒ…‡ –‘ ƒ˜‘‹† †‹••‡‹ƒ–‹‰ ˆƒŽ•‡ ‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ„‘—– …‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻǡ ™Š‹…Š …‘—Ž†

…ƒ—•‡ƒ’—„Ž‹…—’”‘ƒ”ǤŠ‹•’ƒ’‡”‘ˆˆ‡”•˜ƒ”‹‘—•‰”‘—†•ˆ‘”–Š‡’”‘•‡…—–‹‘‘ˆ

†—”‹‰ …‘˜‹†ǦͳͻǤ ‘” ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ’”‘’ƒ‰ƒ–‹‰ ƒ–‹ǦŠ‹‡•‡ –Š‡‘”‹‡• ‘ •‘…‹ƒŽ ‡†‹ƒ

…‘—Ž† ’”‘˜‘‡ ™‘”Ž†™‹†‡ …‘ˆŽ‹…–Ǥ  –Š‹• ‹•–ƒ…‡ǡ –Š‡ ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘ ‹• †‡‡‡†

‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡‹’”‡˜‡–‹‰Šƒ”ˆ—Ž”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ

ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ–Š‡’”‡•‡–•–—†›•—‰‰‡•–•–Šƒ––Š‡‰‘˜‡”‡––ƒ‡•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ–•–‡’•

–‘‡Šƒ…‡–”ƒ•’ƒ”‡…›”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰–Š‡„‡‡ˆ‹–•‘ˆ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‹’‘•‡†‘–Š‡

†—”‹‰ƒ…”‹•‹•‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ’—„Ž‹…‹–‡”‡•–•ƒ†’—„Ž‹…‘”†‡”Ǥ–Š‹•”‡‰ƒ”†ǡ–Š‡

‰‘˜‡”‡– ƒ† ‘–Š‡” ’—„Ž‹… ƒ† ’”‹˜ƒ–‡ ‘”‰ƒ‹œƒ–‹‘• •Š‘—Ž† ’”‘‘–‡ ˜ƒ”‹‘—•

ƒ™ƒ”‡‡•• …ƒ’ƒ‹‰• –‘ ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡ ’‘•‹–‹˜‡ ”‡•—Ž–•Ǥ ‘ ‘–‹˜ƒ–‡ –Š‡ ’‡‘’Ž‡ ƒ† –Š‡

‰‘˜‡”‡––‘™‘”–‘‰‡–Š‡”ˆ‘”–Š‡•–ƒ–‡̵•‰”‘™–Š†—”‹‰ƒ–‹‡‘ˆ…”‹•‹•ƒ†–‘

ƒ…Š‹‡˜‡‡ˆˆ‡…–‹˜‡”‡•—Ž–•ǡ‹–‹•ƒŽ•‘‡…‡••ƒ”›–‘’”‘‘–‡Š—ƒ”‹‰Š–•™‹–Š‘—–ƒ›

†‹•”‡‰ƒ”†Ǥ

6. Research Implications

Š‹••–—†›’”‘˜‹†‡•‘”‡„‡‡ˆ‹…‹ƒŽ”‡•—Ž–•–Šƒ’”‡˜‹‘—•”‡•‡ƒ”…ŠǤŠ‡‘”‡–‹…ƒŽŽ›ǡ

–Š‹• •–—†› ‹• •‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ– •‹…‡ ‹– ‡’Šƒ•‹œ‡• Ž‹‹–• ‘ ˆ”‡‡ •’‡‡…Š ‹ ƒ †‡˜‡Ž‘’‹‰

ƒ–‹‘Ǥ – ƒŽ•‘ …‘–”‹„—–‡• –‘ –Š‡ Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡ ‘ –Š‡ Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ ˆ”‡‡ •’‡‡…Š ‹

†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…•–ƒ–‡•ǤŠ‹•’ƒ’‡”‡šƒ‹‡•–Š‡•‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ…‡‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘‹

–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ†‘‡•‹ƒǡƒ•–Š‡ƒƒ‰‡‡–‘ˆ–Š‡‘˜‹†̵ͳͻ’‹†‡‹…‹†‘‡•‹ƒ

‡”‹–• –Š‘”‘—‰Š …‘•‹†‡”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‡ •–—†› ‹ˆ‘”• –Š‡ †‘‡•‹ƒ ’‘’—Žƒ…‡ ƒ„‘—–

”‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‘ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘†—”‹‰–Š‡’ƒ†‡‹…ǡƒ•’ƒ”–‹…‹’ƒ–‹‘ƒ†Ž‡‰ƒŽ

—†‡”•–ƒ†‹‰ƒ”‡Ž‹‹–‡†ǤŠ‹•™ƒ•†‘‡–‘…—”–ƒ‹Žˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ•’‡‡…Šƒ†‡š’”‡••‹‘

ƒ†“—‹‡–‰‘˜‡”‡–’‘Ž‹…›‘’’‘‡–•ǤŠ‹••–—†›†‡‘•–”ƒ–‡•–Šƒ––Š‡”‹‰Š––‘

‘™–Š‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ’—„Ž‹…‹–‡”‡•–ƒ†–Š‡‡…‡••‹–›ˆ‘”‘™Ž‡†‰‡ˆ‘”‡ˆˆ‹…‹‡–

†‡‘…”ƒ–‹… ‰‘˜‡”‡– …‘–”‘Ž ƒ”‡ –Š‡ ˆ‘—†ƒ–‹‘• ˆ‘” –Š‡ ”‹‰Š– –‘ ˆ”‡‡†‘ ‘ˆ

‡š’”‡••‹‘Ǥ —”‹‰ ƒ …”‹•‹•ǡ –Š‹• •–—†› ˆ‘…—•‡• ‘ –Š‡ •‘Ž—–‹‘• –Šƒ– …ƒ ƒ‹† ‹ –Š‡

ˆ—–—”‡ˆ‘”–Š‡”‡’‡”…—••‹‘•‘•–Ž›”‡Žƒ–‡†–‘‡…‘‘‹…ƒ†•‘…‹ƒŽˆƒ…–‘”•ƒ†–Š‡

”‹‰Š––‘‡Œ‘›–Š‡ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ•’‡‡…ŠǤ ‘”–Š‡‰‘˜‡”‡––‘…”‡ƒ–‡ƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ’‘Ž‹…‹‡•

‘ –Š‡ …‘–”‘Ž ‘ˆ ‰”ƒ–‹‰ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ• –Š‡ ”‹‰Š– –‘ ˆ”‡‡†‘ ‘ˆ ‡š’”‡••‹‘ ˆ‘” –Š‡‹”

„‡Ž‹‡ˆ•ǡƒ††‹–‹‘ƒŽ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š—•–„‡…‘†—…–‡†Ǥ 7. Limitations and Future Research

”ƒ…–‹…ƒŽŽ›‡˜‡”›”‡•‡ƒ”…ŠŠƒ•„‘–Š„‡‡ˆ‹–•ƒ††”ƒ™„ƒ…•ȋ‹…Ž—†‹‰†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–

•Š‘”–…‘‹‰•ȌǤ ‹‹Žƒ”Ž›ǡ ‡˜‡ –Š‘—‰Š –Š‡ ’”‡•‡– •–—†› ƒ†‡“—ƒ–‡Ž› Œ—•–‹ˆ‹‡• –Š‡

Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ †—”‹‰ …‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻǡ ‹– ƒŽ•‘ Šƒ• •‹‰‹ˆ‹…ƒ– †”ƒ™„ƒ…• –Šƒ– …ƒ „‡

ƒ††”‡••‡† ‹ ˆ—–—”‡ ”‡•‡ƒ”…ŠǤ Š‹• •–—†›ǡ ˆ‘” ‹•–ƒ…‡ǡ ‘Ž› …‘…‡–”ƒ–‡† ‘

‹’Ž‡‡–‹‰ ”‡•–”‹…–‹˜‡ ‡ƒ•—”‡• ‹ †‘‡•‹ƒ †—”‹‰ ‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻǡ ƒ† ‘ ‰Ž‘„ƒŽ

’‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡™ƒ•‡’Šƒ•‹œ‡†–‘…‘’”‡Š‡†–Š‡‰Ž‘„ƒŽ•…‡ƒ”‹‘„‡––‡”ǤŠ‹••–—†›

ˆ‘…—•‡†’”‹ƒ”‹Ž›‘–Š‡”‘Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡†‘‡•‹ƒ…‘•–‹–—–‹‘‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆ Ǣ

‘–Š‡” ”‡Ž‡˜ƒ– Žƒ™• ƒ† ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘• ”‡…‡‹˜‡† Ž‹––Ž‡ ƒ––‡–‹‘Ǥ ‘ǡ ˆ—–—”‡ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š

•Š‘—Ž† …‘…‡–”ƒ–‡ ‘ ‘”‡ ”—Ž‡• ƒ† ”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘• ‹ –Š‹• …‘–‡š– –‘ „‡––‡”

…‘’”‡Š‡† ̵•Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•†—”‹‰ƒ‰Ž‘„ƒŽ…”‹•‹•Ǥ

‡…ƒ—•‡‘ˆ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š‡”„‹ƒ•ǡ–Š‹••–—†›…‘…‡–”ƒ–‡†‘•–Ž›‘–Š‡…‘•–”ƒ‹–•‘ˆ

†—”‹‰…‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻƒ†‰ƒ˜‡Ž‹––Ž‡ƒ––‡–‹‘–‘‰Ž‘„ƒŽ…‘…‡”••—…Šƒ•–‡””‘”‹•ǡ

™ƒ”ǡ ‡–…Ǥǡ ‹ –Š‹• •‡––‹‰Ǥ —–—”‡ ”‡•‡ƒ”…Š —•– –Š‡”‡ˆ‘”‡ …‘…‡–”ƒ–‡ ‘ –Š‡

Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ ‹–Š‡…‘–‡š–‘ˆƒ›‰Ž‘„ƒŽ’”‘„Ž‡•ǡ•—…Šƒ•‡…‘‘‹…ǡˆ‹ƒ…‹ƒŽǡ

–‡””‘”‹•ǡƒ†™ƒ”Ǧ”‡Žƒ–‡†…”‹•‡•Ǥ References

„„ƒ•ǡǤǡƬ—„ƒ‹”ǡǤȋʹͲʹͲȌǤ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆš’”‡••‹‘—†‡”‡•‘”•Š‹’

‹• ƒ –Š”‡ƒ– –‘ ‡‘…”ƒ…›Ǥ Dialogue (Pakistan), 15ȋͳȌǡ ͳͺǤ

Š––’•ǣȀȀ“—”–—„ƒǤ‡†—Ǥ’Ȁ–Š‡†‹ƒŽ‘‰—‡ȀŠ‡ΨʹͲ‹ƒŽ‘‰—‡Ȁͳͷ̴ͳȀͳͷ̴ͳ̴͵Ǥ’†ˆ

„Š‹’”ƒ›ƒǡ ǤǤǡƒŠŽ‡˜‹ǡǤǤǤǡƬ”—”‘„„‹ǡǤǤȋʹͲʹͲȌǤŠ‡‡‘…”ƒ–‹…‡…Ž‹‡

‹†‘‡•‹ƒ†‡”‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻƒ†‡‹…ǤJWP (Jurnal Wacana Politik), 5ȋʹȌǡͻͻǦͳͳͲǤ

Š––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤʹͶͳͻͺȀŒ™’Ǥ˜ͷ‹ͳǤʹͺͷͺͳ

ŽǦ ƒ–‹ŠǡǤǡƬ—”‹ƒ™ƒǡǤȋʹͲʹͳȌǤ‘ƒš—”‹‰–Š‡‘˜‹†Ǧͳͻƒ†‡‹…‹†‘‡•‹ƒǣ

—ƒ ‹‰Š–• ‡”•’‡…–‹˜‡Ǥ 2nd International Conference on Law Reform (INCLAR 2021)ȋ’’Ǥͳ͵͵Ǧͳ͵͸ȌǤ–Žƒ–‹•”‡••ǤŠ––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤʹͻͻͳȀƒ••‡Š”ǤǤʹͳͳͳͲʹǤͳͺʹ

Ž–•Š—Ž‡”ǡǤȋʹͲʹͳȌǤ‘”‘ƒ˜‹”—•…‘–ƒ‹‡–†‡’‡†•‘Š—ƒ”‹‰Š–•ǣˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ

‡š’”‡••‹‘ƒ†’”‡••ƒ”‡‡‡†‡†–‘ˆ‹‰Š–’ƒ†‡‹…ǤInternational Journal of Human Rights in Healthcare, 14ȋ͵Ȍǡ ʹ͹ͲǦʹ͹ͺǤŠ––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤͳͳͲͺȀǦͲ͹ǦʹͲʹͲǦ ͲͲͷͶ

ƒ–ǡ Ǥǡ ”‡ƒ•ǡ Ǥǡ ƒŽ…×Ǧ‹‡‘ǡ Ǥǡ Ƭ —Ó‘œǡ Ǥ ȋʹͲʹͲȌǤPandemics meet democracy. Experimental evidence from the COVID-19 crisis in SpainǤ

Š––’ǣȀȀ†šǤ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤ͵ͳʹ͵ͷȀ‘•ˆǤ‹‘Ȁ†—•™

›ƒŽ‡™ǡǤǤȋʹͲʹͲȌǤ••‡••‹‰–Š‡Ž‹‹–ƒ–‹‘•–‘ˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘‘

–Š‡‹–‡”‡–‹–Š‹‘’‹ƒƒ‰ƒ‹•––Š‡ˆ”‹…ƒŠƒ”–‡”‘—ƒƒ†‡‘’Ž‡•̵

‹‰Š–•Ǥ African Human Rights Law Journal, 20ȋͳȌǡ ͵ͳͷǦ͵ͶͷǤ

Š––’ǣȀȀ†šǤ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤͳ͹ͳͷͻȀͳͻͻ͸ǦʹͲͻ͸ȀʹͲʹͲȀ˜ʹͲͳƒͳʹ

œ‹œǡǤǤǡ—Š–ƒ”ǡǤǤǡ†”‹ƒǡǤǤǡƬ‡”ƒƒǡǤǤȋʹͲʹʹȌǤ‡‰ƒŽƒ…——‘–Š‡‹‹–ƒ–‹‘

‘ˆ–Š‡‹‰Š––‘”‘–‡•–†—”‹‰–Š‡Ǧͳͻƒ†‡‹…‹†‘‡•‹ƒǤAsian J. Legal Stud.ǡ͹ͲǤ

Š––’•ǣȀȀŠ‡‹‘Ž‹‡Ǥ‘”‰ȀȀƒ†‹‰ƒ‰‡ǫŠƒ†Ž‡αŠ‡‹ǤŒ‘—”ƒŽ•ȀƒŽ•ƒ…†ŒͺƬ†‹˜αͳʹ

ƒŽ‹ǡǤǤȋʹͲͳ͹ȌǤ‹‰‹–ƒŽ’‡‡…Šƒ†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…—Ž–—”‡ǣŠ‡‘”›‘ˆ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ

š’”‡••‹‘ˆ‘”–Š‡ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘‘…‹‡–›ǤPopular Culture and Lawȋ’’ǤͶ͵͹ǦͶͻͶȌǤ

‘—–Ž‡†‰‡ǤŠ––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤͶ͵ʹͶȀͻ͹ͺͳ͵ͷͳͳͷͶͳ͸ͳǦͻ

‹Ï‰‘”ƒŒ•‹ǡǤȋʹͲʹʹȌǤŠ‡‹’‘”–ƒ…‡‘ˆˆ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ‡š’”‡••‹‘‹ƒ†‡‘…”ƒ–‹…•–ƒ–‡Ǥ Scientific Journal of Bielsko-Biala School of Finance and Law, 26ȋ͵Ȍǡ ͷǦͻǤ

Š––’•ǣȀȀƒ•‡ŒǤ‡—Ȁ‹†‡šǤ’Š’Ȁƒ•‡ŒȀƒ”–‹…Ž‡Ȁ˜‹‡™Ȁ͸Ͷ͹

‘Ž•‘˜‡”ǡǤȋʹͲʹͲȌǤƒŽƒ…‹‰ˆ”‡‡†‘•ǡ”‹‰Š–•ƒ†”‡•’‘•‹„‹Ž‹–‹‡•†—”‹‰‹

ǣƒ•–—†›‘ˆƒ–‹Ǧƒ†’”‘Ǧ”‡•–”‹…–‹‘†‹•…‘—”•‡ǤarXiv preprint arXiv:2008.09440Ǥ

Š––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤͶͺͷͷͲȀƒ”‹˜ǤʹͲͲͺǤͲͻͶͶͲ

‘–…Š‡˜ƒǡǤǡ‘•‡––‹ǡǤǡ‡›••‘—ǡǤǡ‡›‡”ǡǤǡ”‡‰‘”›ǡǤǡƒ‘–ǡǤǡƬƒ›ƒ”†ǡǤȋʹͲʹͲȌǤ

ƒŽƒ…‹‰ ƒ…–ǣ ‘—–‡”‹‰ †‹‰‹–ƒŽ †‹•‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ ™Š‹Ž‡ ”‡•’‡…–‹‰ ˆ”‡‡†‘ ‘ˆ ‡š’”‡••‹‘Ǥ

Š––’•ǣȀȀ‡Ǥ—‡•…‘Ǥ‘”‰Ȁ•‹–‡•Ȁ†‡ˆƒ—Ž–Ȁˆ‹Ž‡•Ȁͳ̴‹–”‘†—…–‹‘̴ͳ͹̴͵ͷ̴„ƒŽƒ…‹‰̴ƒ…–̴†‹•‹ˆ‘Ǥ’†ˆ

‘—Ž‘•ǡǤȋʹͲʹʹȌǤ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆ’‡‡…Š‹‹‡•‘ˆ”‹•‹•ǣŠ‡ƒ•‡‘ˆ’ƒ‹—”‹‰–Š‡

Ǧͳͻƒ†‡‹…ǤSecurity and Defence: Ethical and Legal Challenges in the Face of Current Conflictsȋ’’ǤʹͲͻǦʹʹͺȌǤ’”‹‰‡”ǤŠ––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤͳͲͲ͹Ȁͻ͹ͺǦ͵Ǧ Ͳ͵ͲǦͻͷͻ͵ͻǦͷ̴ͳͶ

—ŽƒǦ‘œ‡ǡǤǡƬ‡‹ˆ–‡”ǡǤȋʹͲʹͲȌǤŠ‡‡‘…”ƒ…›”‹…‹’Ž‡‹–ƒ–‡‘•–‹–—–‹‘•ǤMich. L. Rev., 119ǡͺͷͻǤŠ––’•ǣȀȀŠ‡‹‘Ž‹‡Ǥ‘”‰ȀȀƒ†‹‰ƒ‰‡ǫŠƒ†Ž‡αŠ‡‹ǤŒ‘—”ƒŽ•ȀŽ”ͳͳͻƬ†‹˜αʹͺ

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—”‘’‡ǤŠ––’•ǣȀȀ”Ǥ…‘‡Ǥ‹–ȀŠƒ†„‘‘Ǧˆ”‡‡†‘Ǧ‘ˆǦ‡š’”‡••‹‘Ǧ‡‰Ȁͳ͸ͺͲ͹͵ʹͺͳͶ

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†”ƒ›ƒ–‹ǡǤǤǡƬƒ”ƒ•™ƒ–‹ǡǤǤǤǤȋʹͲʹʹȌǤ”‹‹ƒŽ‹œ‹‰ƒ†’‡ƒŽ‹œ‹‰„Žƒ•’Š‡›ǣ–Š‡

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ƒ”ƒ‹…‘Žƒ•ǡǤȋʹͲʹͳȌǤ˜‡‹ƒ’ƒ†‡‹…ǡ•—Ž‹‰Š–‹•–Š‡„‡•–†‹•‹ˆ‡…–ƒ–ǣǦͳͻƒ†

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ƒ”‹ǡ Ǥ Ǥǡ ƒšƒƒƒŠƒ†›ǡ Ǥ Ǥ Ǥ Ǥǡ Ƭ ‹†ƒ›ƒ–ǡ Ǥ Ǥ ȋʹͲʹʹȌǤ Š‡ ‹‰Š– –‘

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Š”ƒ‘˜ƒǡǤȋʹͲʹͲȌǤŠ‡ŠƒŽŽ‡‰‡•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ†‡‹…ǣ‡•–”‹…–‹‘•‘ˆ ”‡‡†‘•‘ˆ

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̵‡‹ŽŽ›ǡǤȋʹͲͳ͸ȌǤ‡ˆ‡…‡‘ˆˆˆ‡…‡ǣ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆš’”‡••‹‘ǡˆˆ‡•‹˜‡’‡‡…Š

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‘ŠƒǡǤȋʹͲʹͳȌǤ —•‡†‡•‹•–ƒ…‡ƒ‰ƒ‹•––ƒ–‡Ǧ’‘•‘”‡†ƒ…‹‰‹†‘‡•‹ƒ†—”‹‰

Ǧͳͻƒ†‡‹…ǤAvailable at SSRN 4331462ǤŠ––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤʹͳ͵ͻȀ••”ǤͶ͵͵ͳͶ͸ʹ

ƒǯ†‹›ƒŠǡǤǤȋʹͲʹͳȌǤ‘…‹ƒŽ–”—…–—”‡ƒ•–Š‡‘‘–‘ˆ’”‘˜‹‰”‹‹ƒŽ‹–›‹–Š‡”ƒ

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ƒ†‡”ǡǤȋʹͲͳͻȌǤ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆš’”‡••‹‘‹–Š‡‰‡‘ˆŽ‹‡Žƒ–ˆ‘”•ǣŠ‡”‘‹•‡

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”‡–”‡ƒ–ǤJournal of Democracy, 30ȋʹȌǡͳͲͲǦͳͳͶǤŠ––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤͳ͵ͷ͵ȀŒ‘†ǤʹͲͳͻǤͲͲʹͺ

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ƒ’—„‘Ž‘ǡǤȋʹͲʹʹȌǤ’‘˜‡”‹•Š‡–‘ˆ–Š‡‘‘”ƒ†‡”‘‰ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ—ƒ‹‰Š–•

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–‘‘ǡǤȋʹͲʹͳȌǤ”‹‹ƒŽ‹œ‹‰–Š‡ ”‡‡†‘‘ˆš’”‡••‹‘„›–ƒ–‡†—”‹‰Ǧͳͻ

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Š––’•ǣȀȀ‹Œ…Œ•Ǥ…‘Ȁ‡—Ǧ•…”‹’–Ȁ‹†‡šǤ’Š’Ȁ‹Œ…Œ•Ȁƒ”–‹…Ž‡Ȁ˜‹‡™ȀͶͳͺ

‡•‡ǡǤȋʹͲʹʹȌǤ‘˜‡”‹‰ˆƒ‡‡™•ǣ–Š‡”‡‰—Žƒ–‹‘‘ˆ•‘…‹ƒŽ‡†‹ƒƒ†–Š‡”‹‰Š––‘

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‘ŽǡǤȋʹͲʹͳȌǤ‘Ž‹–‹…ƒŽ’‡”ˆ‘”ƒ…‡•‘ˆ…‘–”‘Ž†—”‹‰Ǧͳͻǣ…‘–”‘ŽŽ‹‰ƒ†

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