Keterlibatan aktor, jejaring dan
tantangan kelembagaan dalam interaksi desa-kota
Fadjar Hari Mardiansjah
• Interaksi Desa-Kota
• Jejaring dalam Interaksi Desa-Kota
• Keterlibatan Aktor
• Tantangan Integrasi Kelembagaan Penguatan
Interaksi Desa Kota
RURAL-URBAN INTERACTIONS
Rural-Urban Interactions
• In the early even current stage of industrialization and urbanization among developing countries, it is common that rural areas give numerous support to urban areas.
• However, rural areas have not received sufficient proper compensation .
• The long existing imbalanced interplay between urban and rural leads to various serious problems:
– rural poverty, and
– environmental destruction
• The problems have potential hazards in the whole economic and environmental development.
• In order to meet these challenges, a new mode of urban-rural
sustainable cooperation must be established.
From Rural-Urban Linkages to Rural-Urban Partnerships
• The concept of Urban-Rural Linkages contains the idea of complementary functions and flows between rural and urban territories of various sizes:
– metropolitan regions,
– small- and medium-sized cities, and – market towns,
– as well as sparsely populated areas with the smallest scale of human settlements.
• Urban-Rural Linkages refer to constant and necessary
flows of people, capital, goods, services and information
between rural and urban areas.
From Rural-Urban Linkages to Rural-Urban Partnerships
• Both rural and urban areas need to have a synergetic relationship between the two.
• Both rural and urban areas have their positives and limitations.
• The rural-urban continuum view brings in synergy in rural- urban relationships.
• The justification of the rural-urban continuum views list in the visible and invisible flows and interconnections, or
linkages, between rural and urban areas.
• Exchanges of goods between urban and rural areas are an
essential element of rural-urban linkages
Roles of Rural Areas for the Urban
• Rural areas are very important for many urban households:
– Rural areas provide food supplies
– Rural areas provide places to spend leisure time
• A proportion of the urban poor derive some/all of their livelihoods from meeting rural demand:
– many poor urban dwellers rely on seasonal employment in agriculture, – many poor urban dwellers move back to rural areas when times are
particularly hard,
– many urban dwellers have relations with rural dwellers to guarantee their food supply.
– many urban dwellers also retain key assets in rural areas and rely on rural dwellers to protect their land, crops or livestock or to provide their
children with homes or even access to schools when urban schools are bad or expensive.
Roles of Urban Areas for the Rural
• Urban areas are very important to rural households:
–
Urban areas play as sources of demand for rural produce
–Funding flows for rural households
–
Funding flows for rural development as many migrants to urban areas help support development in the rural settlements from which they come from
–
Accommodation and access to jobs or schools for rural family/kin/fellow villagers
–
Refuges for some of the poorest rural dwellers;
–
More diverse labor markets and employment opportunities for those in nearby rural areas;
–
Access to many different branches of government (including access to
justice) and many public services
Spatial Model of Rural-Urban Linkages
(Spatial Cohesion Between Rural and Urban Areas)
NETWORKS, ACTORS AND CHALLENGES
IN RURAL-URBAN INTERACTIONS
Spatial Engagement in
Rural-Urban Relationships
• Rural to rural interactions
• Rural to urban interactions:
– Rural to small towns interactions – Rural to bigger cities interactions
• Urban to urban interactions:
– Small town to small town interactions – Small town to bigger cities interactions – Bigger city to bigger cities interactions – Bigger cities to metropolitan interactions – Metropolitan to global cities interactions
• Urban and rural areas are closely linked, each contributing to the
other, which needs to be considered in development planning.
Types of rural-urban linkages
• Rural-urban physical linkages, that lead to rural-urban migration.
• Social-cultural linkages as the immigrants still maintains ties with their rural homes and rely on village mates to settle in the town or city.
• Rural-urban economic linkages:
–
Rural-urban linkages create an avenue for stimulation of rural
economies to growth, spread the benefits or urban development and transform a “rural to urban center” migration pattern to the reverse.
–
The linkages enhance a wide variety of consumer goods, commercial and personal services to be offered
• Rural-urban environmental linkages: ecological footprint that
raises serious questions of sustainability of natural, economic
and social systems.
1. Physical 2. Economic
3. Population &
Movement 4. Social
Interactions
5. Service Delivery 6. Political,
Administrative and
Organizational Rondinelli (1985)
Major Rural-
Urban Linkages
Small towns and rural-urban linkages
• Small towns have a considerable potential role in rural-urban linkages:
– Large proportion of urban population in most nations lives in small towns – Through the development of SMEs, the small towns act as markets for farm
produce from the surrounding rural region:
• for local consumption or
• forwarding to the national and/or regional markets
– Small towns also act as nodes for the production and distribution of goods and services to their neighboring rural region
– Small towns as processing centers for farm produce from the surrounding rural region?
– Small towns as technological support centers for farm activities from he surrounding regions?
• Small town functions as a link between the rural areas and
the large towns.
Small towns and rural-urban linkages (The important of Small town functions)
• Towns and cities can lead to strong rural development and vice versa, as rural-urban linkage manifests itself in many ways:
– labor movement, – technology flows,
– input, output and information flows among the major linkage elements.
• Forward linkages exhibited by the flow of farm and non-farm outputs for consumption and production purposes in rural towns and towns are useful for creating marketing outlets (demand) for rural households
• Backward linkages enable the flow of inputs, management skills,
technologies an information and credit towards the agricultural
(farm) and rural non-farm sector
Market Centers and Rural-urban Linkages
• Market centers in rural areas perform many social roles for rural communities:
– Many market centers in rural areas are not daily market, but regularly periodic market that also provide social events in rural areas.
– Usually, the period market centers are also important meeting places for rural communities as well as for social satisfaction were major functions of urban centers are not available
– Many economic exchange (trade, services, and even credits) grew out of traditional social gatherings and relationships.
– In addition to being a source of consumption goods, accessible
markets can be a vital outlet for both consumables and non-
consumables goods.
Do they need transport infrastructure only?
• Roads and transport facilities (infrastructure and services) are among the vital establishments that facilitate interactions among economic agents and can lead to higher income.
• Roads and transport services are core infrastructural facilities that significantly contribute to income improvement from both formal and informal sectors, as well as in improving consumption and welfare.
• Road type and quality is found to play significant role in enabling increased market participation and intensity of marketing for rural products.
• But, will it enough with road infrastructure only? They need transportation services provision too:
– Bus system : passenger and hand carry goods (luggage)
– Truck system : transporting goods and other rural products (in bulk ) – Forwarding system: for package services and deliveries
• They also need other facilities (economic as well as social facilities) to supports and improve rural production system.
Interaction of Small Towns and Larger Urban Centers (cities)
• New urban policies should not only focus on links between the small town and the rural areas but also focus on the link between the small and large towns/cities.
• Cities are engines of economic growth and social development, drawing in human resources and raw materials, which, coupled with superior urban infrastructure, have spurred industrial and commercial development.
• Cities are not only places where capital is accumulated and reinvested in new sectors, but also the nodal points of specialized services.
• Cities provide economies of scalar and agglomeration, as well as the economic and social infrastructure within which many businesses and entrepreneurships are
incubated and nurtured.
• Large cities typically produce a significant forms of economic activity and economic organization, that evolve and gain higher value.
• They are also centers of changes in the social division of labor, and with
globalization, competition between cities has intensified, and they have more potentials in attracting international investment.
Employment and Income in small towns
• Urban economies generate significant employments in both formal and informal sectors:
– Formal sector: higher wages, but small absorption
– Informal sector: lower wages but higher absorption; growing faster.
• Development of technology, including for farm/rural production, increase surplus of labor in rural areas.
• Small towns are close and could play as interface to rural areas.
• Development of small towns could improve absorption of
rural surplus of labor to improve employment rate in rural
areas.
Small enterprises and rural-urban linkages
• Small town can be seen as a way of organizing economic activities or enterprises in rural areas.
• When small and large industries are linked and networked and the small
enterprises are seen as complementary to the large rather than alternative to them:
– small enterprises can do some initial processing activities for the larger ones.
– Small enterprises can do services (trade, repair, suppliers, etc.) for the larger ones.
• small enterprises function often as mediators between the local market and outside sources of consumer goods, production inputs and information, vice versa.
• By their organizational capacity, small enterprises could also attract large organization to be involved in developing activities in the small town for the area.
• Small enterprises could play the role to unlock the potentials of rural areas.
Rural Functions in Small Towns’ SMEs
• Agricultural growth can lead to strong multiplier effects in the non- farm Economy.
• Economic growth of multiplier effects associated with additional agricultural income of rural households.
• The can also contribute to poverty alleviation.
• Some village products, especially crop and livestock production have been known to have a high multiplier effect in economic growth:
– However, the ability of small towns’ SMEs to respond to the potentials demand depends on both macro and micro factors and more particularly on marketing conditions, transport and communication networks.
– But the advance of ICT today has significantly decreased marketing barriers.
• Rural and small towns SMEs can play complementary roles in
improving economic growth in the area.
Rural Functions in Small Towns’ SMEs
• Land use and land ownership:
– the continued expansion of urban boundaries has seen a decrease of agricultural activities in areas close to towns.
– However, we need to ensure constant supply of fresh perishable produce (food supplies) to the urban market.
– How to find alternative product that can ensure better exchange? off-farm processing activities
• Non-farm employment:
– small scale commercial and subsistence farmers do engage in a second source of income inform of non- farm activities:
• Pull factors include better returns in the non-farm sector relative to the farm sector.
• Push factors include an inadequate farm output (crop failure, land constraints, etc.)
– Better participation of rural households in non-farm activities bring better improvement.
– However, rural labor need support in terms of training, better transportation and commuting services, closer agro-industrial activities, etc.
Rural Functions in Small Towns’ SMEs
• Land use and land ownership:
– the continued expansion of urban boundaries has seen a decrease of agricultural activities in areas close to towns.
– However, we need to ensure constant supply of fresh perishable produce (food supplies) to the urban market.
– How to find alternative product that can ensure better exchange? off-farm processing activities
• Non-farm employment:
– small scale commercial and subsistence farmers do engage in a second source of income inform of non- farm activities:
• Pull factors include better returns in the non-farm sector relative to the farm sector.
• Push factors include an inadequate farm output (crop failure, land constraints, etc.)
– Better participation of rural households in non-farm activities bring better improvement.
– However, rural labor need support in terms of training, better transportation and commuting services, closer agro-industrial activities, etc.
Inclusion and exclusion:
the role of small farms
• Small farms can be drivers of change and play an important role in the rural economy, but at the same time may be left behind in the current rapid
economic developments characterized by globalization, vertical change integration etc.
• the “new economy” (characterized by globalization of trade, financial flows and institutions) can both provide opportunities and threats to poor
farmers:
– poor smallholder households get locked out of markets due to slow progress in participation of the country in the global economy.
– the physical, information and institutional isolation of poor households in rural areas.
– However, the fact that poor households have access to local, national and
international markets does not always mean that they can benefit from this access, since a number of institutional deficiencies limit smallholder areas from taking advantage of market opportunities: inadequate access to information, contractual enforcement and finance
Inclusion and exclusion:
the role of small farms
• The only part of agriculture in developing countries that will continue to grow significantly faster than population in the next twenty years is the high value sector.
• The implications: to significantly improve their incomes per capita over the next twenty years, they must either be part of the shift to high-value agricultural production or increase the share of income they get from nonagricultural sources.
• However:
– high value chains impose quality and timeliness requirements that are difficult to comply with for small farmers needs vertical and horizontal coordination (organization)
– “new technology” is often capital-based and requires certain skills that are beyond the scope of many small farmers needs support and trainings
POLICY IMPLICATION IN STRENGTHENING
RURAL-URBAN SUSTAINABLE COOPERATION
Policy Implication?
• Urban and rural areas are closely linked, each contributing to the other, which needs to be considered in development planning.
• Cities (small towns) can take diversified
complementary forms of compensation to help rural areas realize green poverty reduction, and
• Cities (small towns) can get profit from the
investment and sustainable resource support from rural areas, achieving urban-rural sustainable
cooperation and co-development.
Proposals for promoting urban-rural sustainable cooperation and relieving urban-rural imbalance
• The role of market mechanisms should be addressed in promoting the sustainable cooperation between urban and rural areas:
–
clarify the property rights of the rural environment and resources, so as to make the rural environment and resources truly become the capital used for the wellbeing of the rural residents.
–
resource allocation function of the market should be strengthened in order to:
• establish a pricing system able to reflect the scarcity of environment services,
• ensure the reasonable benefit for the rural areas when selling or transferring the environment services to achieve higher rural income level.
–
further promote the marketization mechanism of eco-compensation to avoid the problems of low compensation standard, unsustainable financial support, technical obstacles of evaluation of environmental services derived in government directed eco-compensation.
–
Establishing a market connecting all stakeholders to realize direct
market transaction of environmental services which are with specific
market prices
Proposals for promoting urban-rural sustainable cooperation and relieving urban-rural imbalance
• Government should better perform the duties as ‘public service provider:
– Government should keep improving the relevant law and regulations, as well as the supervision and management mechanisms:
• to provide sufficient legal safeguards for the rural areas' property and rights, and
• to raise the price for cities to randomly overexploit, or even grab and damage the rural environment and resources.
– Government ought to encourage the innovative forms of urban-to-rural compensation besides financial aid, such as: support in talent, technology, mechanism and culture,
– Government should create diversified compensation channels suiting local conditions, and to improve the effectiveness of compensation on the premise of protecting the rural environment, and reducing the pollution and
destruction.
– Government should replace the current unified GDP-oriented assessment system with diversified multi-level assessment mechanism, and underline the assessment on achievements of poverty reduction and environmental
protection
Proposals for promoting urban-rural sustainable cooperation and relieving urban-rural imbalance
•
Government should promote eco-compensation through market, by designing:
– fiscal policies such as tax incentives, – fiscal interest subsides,
– investment subsides etc.
to support the establishment of eco-compensation marketization mechanism.
•
Government should provide highly efficient education and training services.
•
Government and public opinion should still stick to education and
campaign in order to raise people's awareness of the value of environment services and deepen their understanding of sustainable development.
•
The participation of rural areas into sharing the urbanization fruits calls for
the whole society to make efforts to forsake prejudices and break down
