Development and Initial Validation of the Active School Transport Instrument in the Developing Country Context to Measure Parental Intentions

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Mathematics 2022, 10, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx www.mdpi.com/journal/mathematics

Article ¹

Development and Initial Validation of the Active School

²

Transport Instrument in the Developing Country Context to

³

Measure Parental Intentions

⁴

Mukhlis Nahriri Bastam ^1,*, Muhamad Razuhanafi Mat Yazid ^2,* and Muhamad Nazri Borhan ² 5

1 Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 6

43600, Malaysia 7

2 Smart and Sustainable Township Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti 8

Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, 43600, Malaysia 9

* Correspondence: [email protected] (M.N.B.); [email protected] (M.R.M.Y.) 10 Abstract: An active school transport (AST) instrument to measure parental intentions in a develop- 11 ing country context with 11 latent constructs and 108 measuring items has been created as part of 12 the integration framework: psychological and social cognitive constructs, perceived environmental, 13 and habit constructs. The purpose of the current study is to develop and carry out initial validation 14 of construct items for measuring parental intentions to promote AST in a developing country's con- 15 text. Three experts carried out a content validity index (CVI) by giving agreement to calculate the 16 Item-CVI (I-CVI) and the Scale-level-CVI (S-CVI). A pilot study was conducted to test the validity 17 and reliability of the construct items in Palembang, Indonesia, with 34 parents of school-aged chil- 18 dren returning the instruments to be analyzed using SPSS Version 23. It was discovered that 93 19 items were legitimate since their r values were more extensive than 0.3, and it was determined that 20 11 constructs were reliable because the measuring items had a Cronbach's alpha coefficient range of 21 0.8 – 0.9 (very good) and > 0.9. (excellent). An instrument has met the requirements of good validity 22 and reliability and can contribute as a novel instrument to measure parental intentions towards 23 AST, especially in developing countries in Asia, particularly Indonesia. 24 Keywords: instrument development, school travel, mode choice, active transport, reliability, valid- 25 ity, theory of planned behaviour, perceived environment, social cognitive, habit, active commuting, 26

children, parents, develping country 27

MSC: 28

29

1. Introduction 30

Physical activity (PA) among children is on the decline worldwide, which poses a

31

substantial risk to their health. As a result, interventions are required to raise the likeli-

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hood that children will reach the World Health Organization's recommendation of engag-

33

ing in 60 minutes of PA per day [1–5]. The overall prevalence of insufficient physical ac-

³⁴

tivity in some high-income Western countries such as the United States is 72.0%, Canada

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is 76.3%, the UK is 79.9%, Spain is 76.6%, Australia is 89%, and New Zealand is 88.7% also

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several countries in the Southeast Asian region such as Indonesia 86.4% and neighbours

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Singapore 76.3% and Malaysia 86.2% [1]. Indonesia, with a population of 40% of the total

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population in Southeast Asia or 279.1 million people, is the country with the most popu-

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lation in the region [6]. This statistic will undoubtedly have consequences on children's

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well-being. Physical activity can be defined as any movement of the body that is produced

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by the skeletal muscles and results in the expenditure of energy [7]. The term "physical

42 Citation: Lastname, F.; Lastname, F.;

Lastname, F. Title. Mathematics 2022, 10, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx Academic Editor: Firstname Last- name

Received: date Accepted: date Published: date

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activity" refers to all types of movement a person engages in, whether to move themselves

43

to and from an activity, for recreation or as part of their activity [7]. Children who par-

44

ticipate in active school transportation (AST), often known as walking and cycling to

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school, have the opportunity to increase their physical activity levels [8,9]. Many benefits

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of AST will be obtained by children not only reducing the risk of being overweight or

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obese [10–13]. Nevertheless, it also positively influences children's mental and psycholog-

48

ical health [14–16]. To promote AST as an increase in PA levels, researchers studied the

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behaviour of children and their parents towards AST, especially in developed countries

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such as the United States, Canada, UK, Spain, Australia, and New Zealand, which are

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otherwise inadequate in developing countries in Asia [17]. As a significant key in AST

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decision-making in children, parental involvement needs to be a primary focus in inves-

53

tigating to promote of AST [18,19].

54

Behaviour towards AST is influenced by various complex factors related to each

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other at the individual, social, and environmental levels [20,21]. Multiple factors men-

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tioned in the ecological model, including psychological and environmental factors, affect

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health behaviour such as AST [22,23]. However, little research has used established psy-

⁵⁸

chological theories to understand the relationships between psychological factors [24].

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The Theory of Planned Behavior is a socio-psychological model commonly used to explain

60

behavioural motivation and successfully explains the mechanism of AST [24–27]. TPB ar-

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gues that intention is the main predictor that shapes individual behaviour and is a medi-

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ator of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (PBC) [28]. Further

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evidence from recent research reveals that attitudes, social support, parental perceptions,

64

and perceived parental barriers toward AST influence their children's transportation

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mode to school [18,29–32]. Barriers that parents consider are related to safety, distance to

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school, and built environment [18]. Self-determination theory [33] assumes that accom-

67

plishing basic psychological needs (BPNs) such as autonomy (the need to take responsi-

68

bility for one's actions), competence (the desire to achieve desired outcomes) and related-

69

ness (the desire for a sense of connection with others) directly leads to an increase in pos-

70

itive behavioural outcomes such as interest, attitude, and intention. The SDT has been

71

utilized extensively as a research framework concerning PA, whereas the utilization of

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BPNs in connection with AST is currently low [27]. Several previous studies have inte-

⁷³

grated TPB and BPNs to explain the mechanism of AST [34,35]. Environmentally nuanced

⁷⁴

factors directly or indirectly affect AST behaviour [27,36,37]. In addition, the habit has a

75

significant effect on the behaviour of AST [24] A research framework that integrates psy-

⁷⁶

chological and social cognitive constructs (i.e., TPB, BPN) and perceived environmental

77

factors to explain AST was first proposed in New Zealand [20]. The author modifies the

78

framework by combining the habit construct as a predictor and applying it to the context

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of developing countries in Asia, especially Indonesia. The current study aims to create

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further, refine, adjust, and initial items validate constructs to measure parental intentions

81

to promote AST in developing countries.

82

2. Materials and Methods 83

2.1. Context 84

The study was conducted in Palembang, a metropolis in a developing country lo-

⁸⁵

cated to the south of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. The city has a population of 1.6

86

million people with an area of 400.61 km2 with a population density of 4166 inhabit-

⁸⁷

ants/km2 [38]. The city of Palembang is divided into two parts, namely the Seberang Ilir

88

and Seberang Ulu areas. The Musi River is the longest river on the island of Sumatra and

89

is among the ten longest rivers in Indonesia. Nine hundred sixty-two schools consisting

90

of 488 elementary schools, 253 junior high schools, and 221 high schools spread across 18

91

sub-districts in Palembang [39]. Three hundred sixteen thousand eight hundred sixty-five

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students with details of 155,828 elementary school level students, 76,870 junior high school

93

level students, and 84,167 high school level students who travel to school every day [40].

94

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The climate in the study area is a tropical climate consisting of dry and rainy seasons [41].

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The dry season begins in April and ends in August, when the study is conducted. The

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region has no specific intervention to promote AST among school children.

97

2.2. Procedures and Measures 98

The design of the instrument to measure parental intention variables in this study

99

used four general procedures, namely: 1) conceptualization, 2) development, 3) expert re-

100

view, and 4) pilot study (Figure 1). The procedure's framework results from modifications

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to instrument development and validation procedures carried out by researchers in vari-

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ous fields [42–45].

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104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119

Figure 1. Instrument development and validation procedure 120

The first stage of the instrument development and validation procedure used in this

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study, conceptualization, consists of two fundamental steps before building a research

122

instrument. The step is to formulate a framework or model, followed by identifying and

123

defining the construct of the proposed framework or model. In the second stage, the initial

124

draft instrument is constructed by selecting, compiling, and adapting the items used as

125

indicators in measuring the construct and the grading system of these items. In the third

126

stage, the items that have been arranged in the initial draft of the instrument are reviewed

¹²⁷

by experts. The review process includes language and culture adjustments according to

128

geographical contexts and the validity of the content of these items. The result of this stage

129

is the acceptance, repair, or elimination of items for the implementation of the next stage.

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In the fourth stage, the author conducts a field test of the initial draft of the instrument

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extracted from the previous stage to assess the validity and absolute reliability of the

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measuring instrument.

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134

2.2.1.Conceptualization

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The conceptualization stage is the framework formulation that will be proposed to

¹³⁶

measure parental intentions toward the AST, constructs identification, and definition. The

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authors conducted a systematic literature analysis to summarize key findings from past

138

research to establish which constructs will be employed. The theory of planned behaviour

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(TPB) has been successfully applied in previous efforts to understand AST behaviour from

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a parental approach [46–48]. It has been shown that habit has a significant and positive

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effect on all of the other latent variables of TPB in prior studies [24,49]. Self-determination

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theory [50,51] is a well-known paradigm for analyzing the societal and individual factors

143

that influence physical activity involvement in children and adolescents [52]. Moreover,

144

the number of studies in the AST-specific setting has increased in recent years [53,54]. It

¹⁴⁵

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has been established that perceived environmental barriers and perceived neighbourhood

146

environments are related to PA in developed countries, but little is known about them in

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emerging countries of Asia [22,55–58]. TPB is extended to include the constructs of habit,

¹⁴⁸

perceived environment, and child's psychological needs as parental barriers to encourag-

¹⁴⁹

ing AST.

¹⁵⁰

151

2.2.2.Development

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The items used to measure the constructions are selected, created, and modified in

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the development stage. A scoring system was utilized to quantify participant responses

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to the questions. Furthermore, generate an initial draft of the instrument to initiate the

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subsequent stage.

¹⁵⁶

Theory of Planned Behaviour Subscale 157

A questionnaire was constructed to test the TPB constructs (i.e., attitude, subject

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norm, description norm, perceived behavioural control, and intention) based on the ref-

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erences of [59] and prior research on AST in children [24,27,60–62]. Attitude is measured

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by nine items (i.e. "If my child cycles/walks to school regularly, my child's independence

161

will grow well."). Subjective norm (SN) is measured by six items (i.e. "My best friends/ My

162

family/ My co-workers/ My neighbours/ My Spouse/ My parents support me letting my

¹⁶³

child bike/walk to school."). Description norm (DN) measured by six items (i.e. "My best

¹⁶⁴

friends/ My family/ My co-workers/ My neighbours/ My Spouse/ My parents will let their

¹⁶⁵

child bike/walk to school."). Nine items measure perceived behavioural control (PBC) (i.e.

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"I am confident that I can let my child bike/walk to school every day."). The intention is

167

measured by six items (i.e. "I intend to let my child bike/walk to school every day in the

168

upcoming school year."). A five-point Likert scale was used to gauge participant agree-

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ment (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree).

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Self Determination Theory Subscale 171

Prior studies have contributed to the involvement of certain items in these constructs

¹⁷²

[27,63]. The self-determination theory in the activity scale, which consists of twenty items,

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was utilized to perform the measuring of autonomy (six items: e.g. “I feel that I have used

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the school travel mode of my choice.”), competence (seven items: e.g. “I am proficient in

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cycling/walking to school.”), Furthermore, relatedness (seven items: e.g. “I feel very com-

176

fortable when I go to school with my friends.”). A Likert scale with five points was utilized

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for each participant to report their level of agreement.

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Perceived Environmental Barriers Subscale ¹⁷⁹

The Barriers to Active Transport to Educational Centres (BATACE) scale was devel-

¹⁸⁰

oped to examine people's perceptions of the environmental barriers that hinder the suc-

181

cess of AST [64], and recent research [27]. Perceived environmental barriers were meas-

182

ured by eighteen items (i.e. "Sidewalks or bike lanes are not available on the road along

183

between the house-schools."). Each participant used a Likert scale with five points to re-

184

port the degree to which they agreed with the statement.

185

Perceived Neighbourhood Environment Subscale 186

A participant's neighbourhood was defined as the region surrounding his or her res-

¹⁸⁷

idence that could be walked in 10–15 minutes, or roughly 1.5 kilometres [65,66]. The per-

188

ceived neighbourhood environment was evaluated using a Spanish adaptation of the AL-

189

PHA environmental questionnaire [65,66], and a recent study [27]. Twenty-two items

190

were used to measure this construct (i.e. "Due to the high volume of traffic in the neigh-

191

bourhood around where I live, walking is not recommended."). A Likert scale with five

192

points was given to each participant, and they were instructed to report the degree to

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which they agreed with the statement being made.

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195 196

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Habit Subscale 197

Habit as a determinant of intention and behaviour in TPB is studied since the con-

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structs meet Ajzen's criteria for utilizing determinants in other behavioural domains [67–

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69]. Habit also has a significant positive effect on the latent construct in the TPB of chil-

200

dren's school travel behaviour [24]. This construct was measured by twelve items adapted

201

from Verplanken and Orbell's Self-Report Habit Index (i.e. "Cycling/walking on travel is

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something I frequently do.”) [70]. A Likert scale with five scales is also employed.

203 204

2.2.3.Expert Review

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A new investigation must be strictly confirmed to warrant that an instrument is valid

206

[71–73]. Quantitative methods are used to evaluate how well items relate to or reflect a

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particular domain, and content validity is one of the measures that can be obtained from

208

these evaluations [72–74]. There are many methods to assess content validity. The content

209

validity index (CVI), assessed by experts, is used in this study. CVI is the strategy for

210

content validity in instrument construction that has received the most significant attention

211

from researchers, and it may be computed with the use of the Item-CVI (I-CVI) and the

212

Scale-level-CVI (S-CVI) [73,75]. The I-CVI is calculated by taking the number of experts

213

rated each item as "very relevant" and dividing that number by the total number of ex-

²¹⁴

perts. The values range from 0 to 1, and if the I-CVI for an item is more significant than

²¹⁵

0.79, then it is relevant; if it is between 0.70 and 0.79, then it requires changes; and if it is

²¹⁶

less than 0.70, then it is removed [73,75]. Similarly, the S-CVI is computed using the num-

217

ber of items in an instrument-rated "very relevant" [73,75]. A conservative method, the

218

Average CVI (S-CVI/Ave), was used to calculate the S-CVI in this study [73,75]. By divid-

219

ing the total number of items by the sum of their I-CVIs, S-CVI/Ave is determined to study

220

[73,75]. S-CVI/Ave demonstrates excellent content validity values greater than or equal to

221

0.9 [76]. Experts also make cultural or contextual adjustments to items adapted from pre-

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vious studies. The experts who conducted the review process of the instrument items in

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this study were three experts. The first expert is a professional statistician and consumer

224

behaviour expert. The second expert is a professional psychologist and lecturer. The third

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expert is a professional media communication expert. These experts have more than ten

226

years of experience in their field.

²²⁷

228

2.2.4.Pilot Study

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A pilot study is an initial stage in the overall study protocol. A pilot study is more

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typical of a small-scale than the main study, and its primary purpose is to assist in the

²³¹

planning and adjustment of the full-scale study [77–79]. The preliminary trial, practice

²³²

run, feasibility study, and small-scale study are commonly used to describe pilot study

233

[77,80]. The pilot study's purpose is to gather the information that can be used to improve

234

the project or determine its feasibility [81–83]. The pilot study is also a statistical test con-

235

firming the instrument's validity and reliability for use in full-scale studies. Because test-

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ing the hypothesis is not the primary goal of a pilot study, the sample size is sometimes

237

not estimated in these investigations [77]. Some studies propose more than 12 samples for

238

each group, while others recommend over 30 samples for each group [77,84,85]. It is nec-

239

essary to select a suitable sample size not to provide adequate power for hypothesis test-

240

ing but to understand the practicability of participant recruiting or study design [77]. The

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pilot study was carried out from April 2022 to May 2022. A total of 50 instruments were

242

distributed to participants, and then 34 instruments were received for analysis using SPSS

243

Version 23.

244

In order to establish the correct Pearson correlation coefficient (r table value), the de-

²⁴⁵

gree of freedom (df) must be determined. The degree of freedom (df) was then set to 32,

246

given that there were 34 study participants (degree of freedom = sample size − 2). 0.307 is

²⁴⁷

the r table value for 32 degrees of freedom with a significance level of 0.05. Meanwhile,

248

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the standard of reliability follows the interpretation of Cronbach's alpha coefficient range

249

(<0.6 (weak); 0.6 - 0.7 (moderate); 0.7 - 0.8 (good); 0.8 – 0.9 (very good); > 0.9 (excellent))

250

[86].

²⁵¹

3. Results and Discussion 252

3.1. Content Validity Index (CVI) 253

A summary of the expert review process is presented in Table 1. The first column

254

shows the constructs involved in the study. The second column is the items used to meas-

255

ure each construct. There are 11 latent constructs with 108 items spread out, varying each

256

construct. The third and the fourth columns indicate the CVI given by the expert and the

257

I-CVI of each item. Three experts give a valuation of the relevance of the items. Three

258

experts are required for content validation [87]. The last column, the fifth column, inter-

259

prets each I-CVI value of each item. Of 108 items assessed by experts, 96 items were rated

260

appropriate, 11 items needed revision, and eliminated 1 item based on the reference I-CVI

261

value range [73,75]. Items that require revision relate to the adjustment of local culture

262

and language. The eleven items that need improvement are five items of the attitude con-

²⁶³

struct, four items of the perceived environmental barriers construct, and two items of the

²⁶⁴

perceived neighbourhood environment construct. While the eliminated item, included in

265

the habit construct, is the ambiguous item in terms of language, experts cannot be used in

266

the context of this study. After each item is revised and rejected according to the advice of

267

experts, the total number of items to be tested for validity and reliability is 107. S-CVI

268

calculated at the end of the table shows that the number 0.93 meet the established criteria,

269

which means the validity of the content is excellent [76].

270 271

Table 1. Calculation of I-CVI and S-CVI/Ave for items of AST 272 273

Constructs Items Expert - CVI I-CVI Interpretation

1 2 3

ATT ATT1 Child's independence 1.00 0.86 1.00 0.95 Appropriate

ATT2 Child's concentration 1.00 0.84 1.00 0.95 Appropriate

ATT3 Child's health 1.00 0.98 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

ATT4 Feel excited and happy 0.80 0.88 0.70 0.79 Need Revision

ATT5 Household expenditure 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

ATT6 Safety and security will be vulnerable 0.70 0.94 0.70 0.78 Need Revision ATT7 School trips will take too extended 0.70 0.88 0.80 0.79 Need Revision ATT8 School trips will be boring and unpleasant 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.77 Need Revision

ATT9 Feel tired and depressed 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.77 Need Revision

SN SN1 Friends 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.95 Appropriate

SN2 Family 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.95 Appropriate

SN3 Coworkers 1.00 0.90 1.00 0.97 Appropriate

SN4 Neighbours 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.95 Appropriate

SN5 Couple 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

SN6 Parents 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

DN DN1 Friends 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

DN2 Family 1.00 0.90 0.94 0.95 Appropriate

DN3 Coworkers 1.00 0.80 1.00 0.93 Appropriate

DN4 Neighbours 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

DN5 Couple 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

DN6 Parents 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

274

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Table 1. Cont. 275 276

1 2 3

PBC PBC1 I live in a surrounding that allows 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PBC2 I am confident that I can 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

PBC3 Giving trust to my child 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

PBC4 The child who knows navigation 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

PBC5 Could walk/bike to school 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PBC6 Could walk/bike for other activities 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PBC7 It is entirely up to me 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

PBC8 It is difficult for my child to 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate

PBC9 My child has enough time 1.00 0.88 1.00 0.96 Appropriate

PEB PEB1 Availability of Sidewalks or cycle sections 1.00 0.88 1.00 0.96 Appropriate PEB2 The road atmosphere is not interesting 0.96 0.96 0.88 0.93 Appropriate

PEB3 No lighting at night 0.70 0.96 0.70 0.79 Need Revision

PEB4 Dangerous crossroads along home-school 0.95 0.90 0.94 0.93 Appropriate

PEB5 Influence of local weather 1.00 0.80 0.82 0.87 Appropriate

PEB6 Similarities with other children 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate PEB7 Teenagers' perception of cycling/walking 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

PEB8 Carrying heavy loads 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.77 Need Revision

PEB9 The convenience of self-driving and finding a rides 0.98 0.90 0.82 0.90 Appropriate

PEB10 Troublesome preparation 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

PEB11 Safe bicycle parking 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

PEB12 Presence of wild animals 0.70 0.80 0.70 0.73 Need Revision

PEB13 Distance between home and school 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PEB14 Areas with a high crime rate 1.00 0.90 1.00 0.97 Appropriate

PEB15 Cycling/walking fun 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PEB16 The road contour along the home-school 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate

PEB17 Traffic situation 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate

PEB18 Pedestrian abuse of the bicycle lane function 0.70 0.80 0.70 0.73 Need Revision

PNE PNE1 Availability of sidewalks 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PNE2 Availability of pedestrian paths 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate PNE3 Availability of cycle-only lanes 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate PNE4 Availability of separated cycle routes 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate PNE5 Availability of playgrounds or esplanades 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PNE6 Sidewalks condition 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PNE7 Cycle lanes condition 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PNE8 Playgrounds or esplanades condition 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

PNE9 Unsafe bicycle parking 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

PNE10 Safe points to cross busy streets 0.70 0.80 0.70 0.73 Need Revision

PNE11 Traffic volume and walking 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.96 Appropriate

PNE12 Traffic volume and cycling 0.95 0.96 0.94 0.95 Appropriate

PNE13 Crime rate and security during the day 0.98 0.96 0.88 0.94 Appropriate PNE14 Crime rate and security at night 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate

PNE15 Cycling experience 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

PNE16 Graffiti and garbage litter my neighbourhood street 0.70 0.96 0.70 0.79 Need Revision PNE17 Environments with tree-lined roads 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate PNE18 Abandoned buildings in the neighbourhood 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate

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1 2 3

PNE PNE19 The existence of a shortcut 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate

PNE20 The fastest mode of cycling during the day 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate

PNE21 The existence of a crossroads 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate

PNE22 Ease of cycling/walking and preferred route 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

HBT HBT1 I do frequently 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

HBT2 I do automatically 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

HBT3 I do it without having to remember consciously 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate HBT4 That makes me feel weird if I do not do it 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

HBT5 I do it without thinking 1.00 0.80 0.82 0.87 Appropriate

HBT6 That would require effort not to do it 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate HBT7 (Daily, weekly, monthly) routine 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate HBT8 I start doing it before I realize I am doing it 1.00 0.80 0.82 0.87 Appropriate

HBT9 I would find it hard not to do 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

HBT10 I do not need to think about doing 1.00 0.80 0.88 0.89 Appropriate

HBT11 That is typical “me” 0.50 0.78 0.60 0.63 Eliminated

HBT12 I have been doing this for a long time 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

INT INT1 I want to let my child 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

INT2 I intend to let my child 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

INT3 I will let my child 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

INT4 I am willing to let my child 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

INT5 I plan to let my child 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate

INT6 It is prospective that I will let my child 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

ATN ATN1 I feel that I use 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

ATN2 I feel that I have the freedom 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

ATN3 I feel that my school commute mode is perfectly 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate ATN4 I feel that my school commute mode parallel 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate ATN5 I feel that my school commute mode is what 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

ATN6 I feel that I can choose 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

COM COM1 I am capable to cycle/walk 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

COM2 I am competent to cycle/walk 1.00 0.80 0.94 0.91 Appropriate

COM3 I am profecient to cycle/walk 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

COM4 I am confident in my ability 1.00 0.96 0.94 0.97 Appropriate

COM5 I am confident in my proficiency 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate

COM6 I am confident in my expertise 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.94 Appropriate

COM7 I am confident in my competency 1.00 0.88 0.88 0.92 Appropriate

RLT RLT1 I feel tuned in when 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

RLT2 I feel I can easily talk when 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate

RLT3 I feel very comfortable when 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

RLT4 I feel incredibly relaxed when 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate RLT5 I feel I kindly interplay with 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate RLT6 I feel comfortable talking to 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.99 Appropriate

RLT7 I feel very relaxed with 1.00 0.96 0.88 0.95 Appropriate

S-CVI/Ave 0.93

ATT = Attitude; SN = Subjective Norm; DN = Description Norm; PBC = Perceived Behavioural Control; PEB = Perceived Environmental Barriers; 279 PNE = Perceived Neighbourhood Environment; HBT = Habit; INT = Intention; ATN = Autonomy; COM = Competence; RLT = Relatedness 280

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3.2. Validity and Reliability 281

The sociodemographic characteristics of this study's participants are presented in Ta-

282

ble 2. The participants that returned the self-reported instruments comprised 34 parents

283

with school-aged children aged 6 to 18. Participants consisted of men (55.9%) age range

284

26 – 41 or the millennial generation group (58.8%) and dominated by higher education

285

(91.2%). Children as school travellers consist of boys (64.7%) with an age range of 6-12

286

years (70.6%) or at the level of elementary school students. The characteristics of school

287

tips are in the form of distance to school, which is evenly distributed with a distance of

288

more than 3 km (35.3%), these children are accompanied to school (82.4%), and the use of

289

private vehicles (motorbikes/cars) (88.2%).

290

291

Table 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of participants (n = 34) 292 293

%

Gender of parent

Male 55.9

Female 44.1

Age of parent

26 - 41 Millenial 58.8

42 - 56 Gen X 41.2

Education of parent

Middle school education 8.8

Higher education 91.2

Gender of child

Boy 64.7

Girl 35.3

Age of child

6 - 12 70.6

13 - 15 14.7

16 - 18 14.7

Distance to school

0 - 500 m 11.8

>500 - 1 km 11.8

>1 - 2 km 23.5

>2 - 3 km 17.6

>3 km 35.3

School Mobility

Escorted 82.4

Independent Mobility 17.6

School Mode of Transport

Public Transport 2.9

Private Vehicle 88.2

Bicycle 2.9

Walk 6.0

294 295

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Table 3 shows the final results of the calculation of the validity and reliability of each

296

item from the constructs that have been compiled previously. The items resulting from

297

expert reviews continue clustered by type of constructs. Attitude construct (ATT) with

²⁹⁸

nine items primarily yielded item ATT9 r = 0.276 < 0.3 (r-table) items ATT8 r = 0.248 < 0.3

²⁹⁹

(r-table) this means that these two construct-forming items are not yet valid, so they need

³⁰⁰

to be eliminated from their construct. Seven items on ATT have met the validity require-

301

ments (> 0.3), and the value of Cronbach's Alpha = 0.875 (very good) indicates that ATT

302

with those items is already reliable. Subjective norm (SN) and description norm (DN) at

303

the beginning have met the item validity requirements (> 0.3), with each construct con-

304

sisting of six items. The values of Cronbach's Alpha, both SN = 0.974 and DN = 0.977, are

305

excellent and report that the SN and DN with their items have been reliable. After the

306

PBC8 item r = 0.212 < 0.3 (r-table) is eliminated, the Perceived behavioural construct (PBC)

307

has the remaining eight items that have met the validity requirement (> 0.3) with a value

308

of Cronbach's Alpha = 0.942 (excellent) which indicates the PBC and its items are reliable.

309

Perceived environmental barriers (PEB), with eighteen measuring items, eliminate PEB15

310

r = 0.278 < 0.3 (r-table) so that the items meet the validity requirement (> 0.3) and reliability

³¹¹

parameters that is Cronbach's Alpha = 0.944 (excellent). Still with constructs relating to

³¹²

the environment, the perceived neighborhood environment (PNE) has eliminated its ten

313

items, PNE1 r = 0.200, PNE2 r = 0.189, PNE3 r = 0.214, PNE4 r = 0.223, PNE6 r = 0.245, PNE7

314

r = 0.188, PNE8 r = 0.264, PNE9 r = 0.237 > 0.3 (r-table), and PNE5 relating to PNE8, and

315

PNE17, to obtain validity values that meet the requirements (> 0.3). PNE, with twelve

316

items remaining, has qualified reliability with the value of Cronbach's Alpha = 0.892 (very

317

good). Habit (HBT) with 11 items, intention (INT) with six items, autonomy (ATN) with

318

six items, competence (COM), and relatedness (TLT) constructs with seven items each

319

have met the validity requirements (> 0.3) without having to eliminate. These last five

320

constructs have also gained the value of excellent reliability.

321 322

Table 3. Overview of items, corrected item-total correlation, Cronbach's alpha, Cronbach's 323

alpha based on standardized items, number of items

324

325

Constructs Items (r)

()¹ ()² No.

Items

ATT Child's independence 0.860 0.878 0.875 7

Child's concentration 0.748

Child's health 0.853

Feel happy 0.646

Household expenditure 0.852

Security will be vulnerable 0.329

Trips time will take too extended 0.380

SN Friends 0.930 0.972 0.974 6

Family 0.938

Coworkers 0.924

Neighbours 0.912

Couple 0.882

Parents 0.887

DN Friends 0.970 0.976 0.977 6

Family 0.920

Coworkers 0.936

Neighbours 0.927

Couple 0.892

Parents 0.897

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Constructs Items (r) ()¹ ()² No.

Items

PBC I live in a surrounding that allows 0.831 0.942 0.942 8

I am confident that I can 0.918

Giving trust to my child 0.895

The child who knows navigation 0.844

Could walk/bike to school 0.785

Could walk/bike for other activities 0.821

It is entirely up to me 0.532

My child has enough time 0.730

PEB Availability of Sidewalks or cycle sections 0.769 0.945 0.944 17

The road atmosphere is not interesting 0.649

Road signs along home-school 0.739

Dangerous crossroads along home-school 0.825

Influence of local weather 0.733

Similarities with other children 0.753

Teenagers' perception of cycling/walking 0.564

Carrying a heavy school bag 0.699

The convenience of self-driving and finding a rides 0.646

Troublesome preparation 0.619

Safe bicycle parking 0.628

Presence of stray dogs 0.527

Distance between home and school 0.748

Areas with a high crime rate 0.812

The road contour along the home-school 0.351

Traffic situation 0.764

Misuse of the sidewalk function 0.854

PNE Availability of crossings 0.609 0.893 0.892 12

Traffic volume and walking 0.645

Traffic volume and cycling 0.625

Crime rate and security during the day 0.661

Crime rate and security at night 0.814

Cycling experience 0.357

Garbage litter my neighbourhood street 0.637 Abandoned buildings in the neighbourhood 0.662

The existence of a shortcut 0.643

The fastest mode of cycling during the day 0.389

The existence of a crossroads 0.692

Ease of cycling/walking and preferred route 0.496

HBT I do frequently 0.827 0.945 0.944 11

I do automatically 0.807

I do it without having to remember consciously 0.789 That makes me feel weird if I do not do it 0.706

I do it without thinking 0.684

That would require effort not to do it 0.501

(Daily, weekly, monthly) routine 0.812

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Constructs Items (r) ()¹ ()² No.

Items I start doing it before I realize I am doing it 0.827

I would find it hard not to do 0.809

I do not need to think about doing 0.744 I have been doing this for a long time 0.797

INT I want to let my child 0.901 0.978 0.978 6

I intend to let my child 0.927

I will let my child 0.945

I am willing to let my child 0.923

I plan to let my child 0.921

It is prospective that I will let my child 0.947

ATN I feel that I use 0.737 0.920 0.927 6

I feel that I have the freedom 0.716

I feel that my school commute mode is perfectly 0.820 I feel that my school commute mode parallel 0.768 I feel that my school commute mode is what 0.883

I feel that I can choose 0.787

COM I am capable to cycle/walk 0.874 0.980 0.981 7

I am competent to cycle/walk 0.931

I am profecient to cycle/walk 0.911

I am confident in my ability 0.960

I am confident in my proficiency 0.970

I am confident in my expertise 0.925

I am confident in my competency 0.928

RLT I feel tuned in when 0.794 0.948 0.949 7

I feel I can easily talk when 0.839

I feel very comfortable when 0.805

I feel incredibly relaxed when 0.828

I feel I kindly interplay with 0.839

I feel comfortable talking to 0.834

I feel very relaxed with 0.839

r = Item Correlation ; ¹ = Cronbach's Alpha; ² = Cronbach's Alpha Standardized 330

4. Conclusions 331

TPB has been a successful theory for understanding parental intentions on AST be-

³³²

haviour in developed countries. The extension of this theory enhances habit, perceived

333

environmental barriers, perceived neighbourhood environment, and self-determination

³³⁴

theory as an addition to aspects of children's assessment in parental decisions. These pro-

335

posed constructs are a unified instrument for understanding AST in developing countries,

336

especially Indonesia. In this study, the author proposed 11 constructs and 108 measure-

337

ment items. Experts panel have evaluated the items as constructs, resulting in the I-CVI >

338

0.79 and S-CVI/Ave > 0.9, which can be considered measurement instruments with elimi-

339

nation and adjustment procedures. In this process, only one item was eliminated and

340

eleven items required revision. Validity and reliability tests are conducted on constructs

341

and items that have passed the preceding procedure. In conclusion, 93 items were deter-

342

mined to be valid based on their r values being more significant than 0.3, and the reliability

343

of 11 constructs was determined based on the measurement items having a Cronbach's

344

(13)

alpha coefficient range of 0.8 – 0.9 (very good) and > 0.9. (excellent). In conjunction with

345

these findings, this study can contribute to the development of a validated instrument for

346

measuring the psychological factors parents consider when deciding whether to allow

³⁴⁷

their children to walk or cycle to school, particularly in developing countries in Asia.This

³⁴⁸

section is not mandatory but can be added to the manuscript if the discussion is unusually

³⁴⁹

long or complex.

350

351 Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.N.B.¹ and M.R.M.Y.; methodology, M.N.B.¹; software, 352 M.N.B.¹; validation, M.N.B.¹, M.R.M.Y. and M.N.B.².; formal analysis, M.N.B.¹. and M.R.M.Y.; inves- 353 tigation, M.N.B.¹.; resources, M.N.B.¹; data curation, M.N.B.²; writing—original draft preparation, 354 M.N.B.¹, M.R.M.Y.; writing—review and editing, M.N.B.¹, M.R.M.Y. and M.N.B.²; visualization, 355 M.N.B.²; supervision, M.R.M.Y. and M.N.B.².; project administration, M.R.M.Y.; funding acquisi- 356 tion, M.R.M.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. 357 Funding: This research was sponsored by the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and The Min- 358

istry of Higher Education Malaysia through project GUP-2021-014 359

Data Availability Statement: All the necessery data are contained this paper. 360 Acknowledgments: The author would like to acknowledge all parties who have assisted in this 361 research, especially each reviewer who has provided improvements to this work 362 Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. 363

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