Engineering Electromagnetics by John Buck and William H. Hayt.pdf

Many of the earlier chapters are now slightly shorter than their Seventh Edition counterparts. The theme of the text is the same as it has been since the first edition of 1958.

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Vector Analysis

SCALARS AND VECTORS
VECTOR ALGEBRA
THE RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM
VECTOR COMPONENTS AND UNIT VECTORS
THE VECTOR FIELD
THE DOT PRODUCT
THE CROSS PRODUCT
OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

The answers to the drill problems are given in the same order as the parts of the task.]. Because the angle between two different unit vectors in the rectangular coordinate system is 90◦ , we then have.

Figure 1.1 Two vectors may be added graphically either by drawing both vectors from a common origin and completing the parallelogram or by beginning the second vector from the head of the first and completing the triangle; either method is easily extended

CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES

THE SPHERICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

The second coordinate is an angle θ between the z-axis and the line drawn from the origin to the point in question. It is the angle between the x-axis and the projection in the z=0 plane of the line drawn from the origin to the point.

PROBLEMS

Find (a) the attached notebook; (b) the total area of the fenced area; (c) the total length of the twelve edges of the surfaces;. d) the length of the longest line that lies entirely within the volume. Find (a) the attached notebook; (b) the total area of the fenced area; (c) the total length of the twelve edges of the surface;. d) the length of the longest line that lies entirely within the surface.

Coulomb’s Law and

Electric Field Intensity

THE EXPERIMENTAL LAW OF COULOMB

The vector F2 is the force on Q2 and is shown for the case where Q1 and Q2 have the same sign. The force expressed by Coulomb's law is a mutual force, since each of the two charges experiences a force of equal magnitude, albeit in opposite directions.

Figure 2.1 If Q 1 and Q 2 have like signs, the vector force F 2 on Q 2 is in the same direction as the vector R 12 .

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

It is also true that the force on a charge in the presence of several other charges is the sum of the forces on that charge due to each of the other charges acting alone. Because the coulombic forces are linear, the electric field intensity resulting from two point charges, Q1atr1and Q2atr2, is the sum of the forces on Qcaused by Q1and Q2 acting alone, or.

Figure 2.2 The vector r locates the point charge Q, the vector r identifies the general point in space P(x, y, z), and the vector R from Q to P(x, y, z) is then R = r − r .

FIELD ARISING FROM A CONTINUOUS VOLUME CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

As an example of evaluating a volume integral, we find the total charge contained in a 2-cm length of the electron beam shown in Figure 2.5. The meaning of the different quantities under the integral sign of (15) can stand a little overview.

Figure 2.5 The total charge contained within the right circular cylinder may be obtained by evaluatingQ = vol ρ ν dν.

FIELD OF A LINE CHARGE

Thus, by a process of elimination we are led to the fact that the field varies only with ρ. In section 2.6 we describe how fields can be sketched, using the line charge field as an example.

Figure 2.6 The contribution dE = dE ρ a ρ + dE z a z to the electric field intensity produced by an element of charge dQ = ρ L dz located a distance z from the origin

FIELD OF A SHEET OF CHARGE

This is an important practical answer because it is the field between the parallel plates of an air capacitor, provided the linear dimensions of the plates are much larger than their separation and provided we also consider a point well removed. The field outside the capacitor, although not zero, as we found for the preceding ideal case, is usually negligible.

STREAMLINES AND SKETCHES OF FIELDS

A knowledge of the functional form of Exand Ey (and the ability to solve the resulting differential equation) will enable us to obtain the equations of the streamlines. As an illustration of this method, consider the field of the uniform line charge with ρL =2π 0,.

Figure 2.9 (a) One very poor sketch, (b) and (c) two fair sketches, and (d ) the usual form of a streamline sketch

PROBLEMS

Find E in rectangular coordinates at P(1,2,3) if the charge exists from (a)−∞<. a) Find the electric field strength, E, in magnitude and direction at any position along the x-axis. 2.24 (a) Find the electric field on the z axis produced by an annular ring of uniform surface charge density ρs in free space.

Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and

Divergence

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY
GAUSS’S LAW
APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW: SOME SYMMETRICAL CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
APPLICATION OF GAUSS’S LAW

This result must be compared with section 2.2, eq. 9), the radial electric field intensity of a point charge in free space. 2Note that if θ and φ both cover the range from 0 to 2π, the spherical surface is covered twice.

Figure 3.1 The electric flux in the region between a pair of charged concentric spheres

DIFFERENTIAL VOLUME ELEMENT

DIVERGENCE AND MAXWELL’S FIRST EQUATION

The divergence of the vector flux densityA is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface per unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero. At the moment the water surface intersects the volume element, the divergence is positive and the small volume is a source.

THE VECTOR OPERATOR ∇

AND THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM

PROBLEMS

Find the total charge in a cube, centered at the origin, of side length 4 m, in which all sides are parallel to coordinate axes (and thus each side intersects an axis at ± 2). Find the total charge inside a sphere of 3 m radius, centered at the origin. a) Find the total charge surrounded by the spherical surface r =1 mm. b).

Energy and Potential

ENERGY EXPENDED IN MOVING A POINT CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

The charge is always moved in a direction perpendicular to the electric field. Returning to the charge in the electric field, the work required to move the charge a finite distance must be determined by integration.

THE LINE INTEGRAL

Recalling the interpretation of the line integral summation, this result for a uniform field can now be quickly obtained from the integral expression. Using the equation of the circular path (and choosing the sign of the radical that is correct for the quadrant in question), we have

DEFINITION OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND POTENTIAL

We must agree on the direction of motion, and we do so by stating that VAB means the potential difference between points A and B and is the work done in moving the unit charge from B (the last-named) to A (the first-named ). Common agreement on the zero reference must be reached before a statement of potential has any meaning.

THE POTENTIAL FIELD OF A POINT CHARGE

This expression defines the potential at any point distant r from a point charge Q at the origin, the potential at infinite radius being taken as zero reference. Equipotential surfaces in the potential field of a point charge are spheres centered on the point charge.

THE POTENTIAL FIELD OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES: CONSERVATIVE PROPERTY

The potential field in the presence of many point charges is the sum of the individual potential fields arising from each charge. E·dL=0 in the form of Kirchhoff's voltage law. 20) states that the transfer of a unit charge from A through R2 and R3 to B and back to A through R1 involves no work, or that the sum of the potential differences around any closed path is zero.

Figure 4.3 The potential field of a ring of uniform line charge density is easily obtained from V =

POTENTIAL GRADIENT

The magnitude of the intensity of the electric field is given by the maximum value of the rate of change of the potential with the distance. This maximum value is obtained when the direction of distance increment is opposite to E, or in other words, the direction of E is opposite to the direction in which the potential increases most rapidly.

Figure 4.6 A potential field is shown by its equipotential surfaces. At any point the E field is normal to the

THE ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Any student with more hours to spare can try working the problem in the opposite direction—the authors consider the process too long and detailed to include here, even for effect. The potential field of the dipole, Eq. 33), can be simplified by making use of the dipole moment.

ENERGY DENSITY IN THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

Is the energy stored in the molecules of the pencil, in the gravitational field between the pencil and the earth, or in some dark place. Is the energy stored in a capacitor in the charges themselves, in the field or where.

PROBLEMS

It is known that a spherically symmetric charge distribution in free space (with 0

Conductors and Dielectrics

CURRENT AND CURRENT DENSITY

We call this type of current a convection current, andJ orρνv is the convective current density. Note that the convective current density is linearly related to both charge density and velocity.

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT

In summary, we have a current density that is inversely proportional to r, a charge density that is inversely proportional to r2, and a velocity and total current that are proportional to r. The current density is given in cylindrical coordinates as J= −106z1.5az. a) Find the total flux crossing the surface z = 0.1 m in the az direction.

METALLIC CONDUCTORS

This velocity is called the drift velocity and is linearly related to the electric field strength by the electron mobility in a given material. If we now combine equations (7) and (8), the conductivity can be expressed in terms of charge density and electron mobility.

Figure 5.3 Uniform current density J and electric field intensity E in a cylindrical region of length L and cross-sectional area S

CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Because the conductor is an equipotential surface, the potential across the surface must be 300 V. Therefore this is the equation of the surface of the conductor; happens to be a hyperbolic cylinder, as shown in Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.4 An appropriate closed path and gaussian surface are used to determine boundary conditions at a boundary between a conductor and free space; E t = 0 and D N = ρ S .

THE METHOD OF IMAGES

The radial vector from the positive line charge to P is R+ = 2ax −3az, while R−=2ax+3az. A perfectly conducting plane is located in free space at x = 4, and an infinite uniform line charge of 40 nC/m lies along the line x =6, y=3.

Figure 5.7 (a) A given charge configuration above an infinite conducting plane may be replaced by (b) the given charge configuration plus the image configuration, without the conducting plane.

SEMICONDUCTORS

Intrinsic semiconductors also satisfy the point form of Ohm's law; that is, the conductivity is reasonably constant with the current density and with the direction of the current density. The range of conductivity values is extreme when we go from the best insulation.

THE NATURE OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Somewhere in the interior of the dielectric, we select an incremental surface element S, as shown in Figure 5.9a, and apply an electric field E. Note that the elements of the matrix depend on the selection of the coordinate axes in the anisotropic material.

Figure 5.9 (a) An incremental surface element S is shown in the interior of a dielectric in which an electric field E is present

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

The boundary conditions on the normal components are found by applying Gauss's law to the small "box" shown on the right in Figure 5.10. Boundary conditions should be used to help determine the fields on either side of the boundary from other information provided.

Figure 5.11 The refraction of D at a dielectric interface. For the case shown, 1 > 2 ; E 1 and E 2 are directed along D 1

PROBLEMS

Find, in terms of the given parameters, (a) the resistance of the material; (b) the total current flowing between plates;. Find, in terms of the given parameters, (a) the electric field intensity E inside the material; (b) the total current flowing between plates;.

Capacitance

CAPACIT ANCE DEFINED

The ratio between the magnitude of the charge on each conductor and the magnitude of the potential difference between them is the capacitance C. The capacitance is independent of the potential and the total charge, for their ratio is constant.

PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR

More rigorously, we can consider Eq. 3) as the capacitance of a part of the infinite planar arrangement with a surface area S. Equation (4) also indicates that the energy stored in a capacitor with a fixed potential difference across it increases as the dielectric constant of the medium increases.

Table C.1 in Appendix C also indicates that materials are available having di- di-electric constants greater than 1000.

SEVERAL CAPACIT ANCE EXAMPLES

Capacitance is a function of neither, but only of dielectrics and geometry. The capacitance is unchanged, provided of course that the added conductor is of negligible thickness.

Figure 6.3 A parallel-plate capacitor containing two dielectrics with the dielectric interface parallel to the conducting plates.

CAPACIT ANCE OF A TWO-WIRE LINE

If we choose an equipotential surface V =V1, we define K1 as a dimensionless parameter that is a function of the potential V1,. The electric field intensity can be found by taking the gradient of the potential field as given by Eq.

Figure 6.4 Two parallel infinite line charges carrying opposite charge. The positive line is at x = a, y = 0, and the negative line is at x = − a, y = 0

USING FIELD SKETCHES TO ESTIMATE CAPACIT ANCE IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL

The method to be described is applicable only to fields where there is no variation in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the sketch. To judge the correctness of the plot in this region, these large units should be divided.

Figure 6.6 (a) Sketch of the equipotential surfaces between two conductors. The increment of potential between each of the two adjacent equipotentials is the same.

POISSON’S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS

Laplace's equation is all-encompassing because when it applies, as it does, where the volume charge density is zero, it states that any conceivable configuration of electrodes. Clearly, more information is required, and we will find that we need to solve Laplace's equation under certain boundary conditions.

EXAMPLES OF THE SOLUTION OF LAPLACE’S EQUATION

These particular equipotential surfaces will provide the boundary conditions for the type of problem to be solved. The boundary conditions can be V =0 at φ=0 and V =V0atφ=α, leading to the physics problem detailed in Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10 Two infinite radial planes with an interior angle α. An infinitesimal insulating gap exists at ρ = 0

EXAMPLE OF THE SOLUTION

OF POISSON’S EQUATION: THE P-N JUNCTION CAPACITANCE

PROBLEMS

If the inner cylinder is at 100 V and the outer at 0 V, find (a) the location of the 20 V equipotential surface; (b) Ermax; (c)r if the charge per meter length on the inner cylinder is 20 nC/m. 6.38 Repeat Problem 6.37, but with the dielectric only partially filled. volume, within 0< φ < π, and with free space in the remaining volume. The area between the spheres is filled with a perfect dielectric. the location of the 20 V equipotential surface.

The Steady Magnetic Field

BIOT-SAVART LAW

The direction of the magnetic field strength is normal to the plane containing the differential filament and to the line passing from the filament to the point P. Subscripts may be used to indicate the point to which each of the quantities in (1) applies.