Psychological Characteristics of Internet
Dating Service Users: The Effect of Self-Esteem, Involvement, and Sociability on the Use
of Internet Dating Services
Mikyoung Kim, M.A.,1Kyoung-Nan Kwon, Ph.D.,2and Mira Lee, Ph.D.1
Abstract
This study explores the three major consumer characteristics that underlie the use of Internet dating services:
self-esteem, involvement in romantic relationships, and sociability. A significant three-way interaction effect among these factors emerged. Among sociable people, individuals with high self-esteem are more likely to use Internet dating services than are those with low self-esteem when they are highly involved in romantic rela- tionships. The opposite pattern was revealed for sociable people, however, when they are less involved in romantic relationships. That is, individuals with low self-esteem used Internet dating services more often than did those with high self-esteem when romantic relationships were not important. The implications for academic researchers and practitioners are discussed.
Introduction
S
ince the emergenceof the dotcom industry in the mid- 1990s, various Internet dating services have fueled an increase in the number of people who turn to the Internet to meet romantic partners. Over 12 million people in the United States alone subscribed to Internet dating services in 2008,1 and Internet dating services produced roughly $900 million in consumer spending as of 2007.2It is expected that the Internet dating service market will continue to grow, and consumer spending in that market will reach $1.9 billion by 2012.2Most Internet dating sites require their users to create a user profile in great detail, including demographic and so- cioeconomic information, descriptions of physical appear- ance, relationship preferences, photographs, and descriptions of personalities and lifestyles.3 Generally, user profiles are viewed by members of the service and on certain sites even by anonymous, nonmember Internet surfers. Due to the nature of such self-promotion, some consumers may still be reluctant to use Internet dating services.
Several studies have examined the role of self-presentation on the perceived success of Internet dating4and the tendency for people to express their true selves on the Internet5in the
context of Internet dating. However, little is known about the psychological characteristics that lead these consumers to use Internet dating services that often require self-promotion. In this study, we examine how self-esteem, involvement in ro- mantic relationships, and sociability influence consumer use of Internet dating services.
Self-esteem and involvement in romantic relationships The primary motivation for using Internet dating services is to seek romantic relationships. Previous studies have sug- gested that the use of Internet dating services relates to the level of involvement based on how important romantic re- lationships are to individuals.3,6Internet dating services can thus be considered a new outlet for those who value romantic relationships in attempts to meet potential partners.
Due to the nature of self-promotion on the Internet dating services, however, the use of these services among those who place great importance on romantic relationships may depend on an individual’s level of self-esteem. When joining Internet dating sites, users must create a user profile. Similar to the advertising of consumer products, Internet dating service users promote themselves by emphasizing their positive
1Department of Advertising, Public Relations, and Retailing, College of Communication Arts and Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
2College of Business Administration, Ajou University, Suwon, Korea.
ªMary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089=cpb.2008.0296
445
qualities, such as appearance, social status, and wealth, so as to be selected. However, this self-promotion feature of Internet dating services can be perceived differently by users depend- ing on each person’s willingness to disclose personal infor- mation publicly. We argue that the willingness or reluctance of such self-promotion is attributed not merely to a particularly engaging personality but also to different levels of self-esteem.
Self-esteem, an individual’s positive or negative attitude toward himself or herself,7is a powerful motivational force8,9 and people are often motivated to regulate their levels of self- esteem.9The regulation of such self-esteem, however, differs between people with high self-esteem and those with low self- esteem. People with high self-esteem employ direct or ap- proach strategies to attain their desired goals, while those with low self-esteem adopt indirect or avoidance strategies to prevent failure.8,9This difference in the way self-esteem is regulated by different individuals is reflected in a person’s self- presenting style.8Specifically, people with high self-esteem are more likely to present themselves in a self-enhancing manner, characterized by a tendency to accept risk and en- gage in public self-presentation.8On the other hand, people with low self-esteem tend to present themselves in self- protective ways. This type of person tends to avoid public self- presentation so as to prevent any risk of losing face.8Such differences in self-presentation among individuals with high and low self-esteem can be applied clearly to the context of Internet dating.
We propose that for people with greater involvement in romantic relationships, self-esteem is a mental resource that is needed for self-promotion on Internet dating services. Those with high self-esteem are better equipped to use Internet dating services. An approach strategy, such as public self- presentation and self-promotion, is more likely to be utilized by individuals with high self-esteem when they place im- portance on romantic relationships. On the other hand, that same approach strategy is less likely to be expected from people with low self-esteem, especially when these types of people value dating and romantic relationships. Although romantic relationships are important to them as well, those individuals with low self-esteem lack the personal resources needed for public self-presentation. Thus, they are more likely to adopt an avoidance strategy because they fear that their profiles could be viewed unfavorably and cause them to feel rejected. However, such self-esteem effects (approach- avoidance strategies) are not expected when people do not place importance on romantic relationships. Even people with high self-esteem may not use Internet dating services when romantic relationships are not important to them. Thus, we hypothesize a two-way interaction between desired in- volvement in romantic relationships and self-esteem:
H1: When romantic relationships are important, people with high self-esteem will be more likely than those with low self- esteem to use Internet dating services. When romantic rela- tionships are not important, there will be no difference in the use of Internet dating services between those with high self- esteem and those with low self-esteem.
Sociability
In the preceding discussion, we argue that involvement in romantic relationships and self-esteem are motivational and psychological factors that can predict the use of Internet
dating services. The question that then remains is what per- sonal traits or tendencies are users of Internet dating ser- vices most likely to have? The stereotypical image of Internet daters is that they are shy, lonely, or socially anxious in tra- ditional face-to-face social settings.5 The basis for this ste- reotype is the idea that the Internet provides a safer, less socially threatening environment for such people.5
That stereotype of Internet daters, however, may not be valid because recent Internet surveys have reported that users of Internet dating services tend to be more sociable and en- gage in varied social activities offline as well. For example, a survey compiled by Brym and Lenton demonstrates that Canadian Internet daters visit their family members often and actively participate in social and leisure activities.3Similarly, Valkenburg and Peter found that people with low dating anxiety were more active users of Internet dating services than those with high dating anxiety. People with low dating anxiety actually employ the Internet as another venue to meet their romantic partners.10 All these findings suggest that people who are sociable offline and have low levels of social anxiety are more likely to use all the means available to them to find romantic partners. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H2: Sociable people will be more likely than less sociable people to use Internet dating services.
Self-esteem, involvement in romantic relationships, and sociability
Further, we speculate a possible three-way interaction ef- fect among self-esteem, involvement in romantic relation- ships, and sociability. It is expected that the interaction effect between involvement in romantic relationships and self- esteem on the use of Internet dating services may emerge only for highly sociable people. Among highly sociable people, those with high self-esteem will use Internet dating services more frequently than will those with low self-esteem when they place great importance on romantic relationships. When romantic relationships are not important to highly sociable people, those with high self-esteem and those with low self- esteem will not differ in the use of Internet dating services.
To date, however, prior studies are insufficient to support such directional expectations regarding the interaction be- tween involvement in romantic relationships and self-esteem for less social people. Thus, the following research question is raised:
RQ1:Will and how will self-esteem, involvement in romantic rela- tionships, and sociability interact to influence the use of Internet dating services?
Method Participants
To explore these hypotheses and a research question pro- posed in this study, data from the 2004 DDB Needham Life Style Survey were analyzed. The data were collected from members of the Market Facts’ Consumer Mail Panel. Panel members were chosen from an annual, standing-panel quota sample similar to the U.S. adult population. Of the 3,345 re- sponses received, 1,588 (47.5 %) were from men, and 1,757 (52.5 %) were from women. Ages ranged from 19 to 89 with a
mean age of 48. The DDB Needham Life Style surveys have been used in numerous former studies.11
Measures
Self-esteem. Self-esteem was measured using an aver- aged composite score for responses to the five statements, which conceptually reflected Rosenberg’s self-esteem mea- sure (e.g., I have more self-confidence than most of my friends).7Responses ranged from 1 (definitely disagree) to 6 (definitely agree). The reliability of the five items was ac- ceptable (a¼0.68), as suggested by previous studies12,13on exploratory studies (e.g., the use of secondary data, as in this study). Using a median split, participants were categorized into high self-esteemed and low self-esteemed people.
Involvement in romantic relationships. Involvement in romantic relationships was measured using three items (e.g., being involved in a romantic relationship is important for me to be happy) ranging from 1 (definitely disagree) to 6 (defi- nitely agree). The scores of all three items were then averaged.
The reliability was acceptable (a¼0.61), as suggested by previous studies.12,13Participants were categorized as high versus low involvement in romantic relationships by a me- dian split.
Sociability. Sociability was operationalized as the degree to which people engage in various social activities and was measured by an averaged composite score of responses to four items (e.g., I spend a lot of time visiting friends). Using a median split, participants were categorized into high sociable and low sociable people.
Use of Internet dating services. The dependent variable, use of Internet dating services, was measured by responses to the following statement: ‘‘Used a dating service on the Internet.’’ The response to this statement was measured on a 7-point scale, ranging fromNever in the past yearto52þtimes in the past year.
Results
Three variables—age, perceived knowledge about tech- nology, and attitude toward the Internet as a social net- working tool—appear to have linear relationships with the dependent variable, as suggested by significant correlations (P’s<001). To test the proposed hypotheses, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted with the three vari- ables as covariates. Significant covariate effects emerged:
F(1, 2838)¼18.52, p<0.001, for age; F(1, 2838)¼6.13, p<
0.05, for perceived technology knowledge;F(1, 2838)¼6.56, p<0.05, for attitude toward the Internet.
There was a significant interaction effect between self- esteem and involvement in romantic relationships regarding the use of Internet dating services,F(1, 2838)¼6.65,p<0.05.
Unlike our prediction, contrast tests revealed that when ro- mantic relationships were valued, the effect of self-esteem on the use of Internet dating services did not reach significance.
An interesting and unexpected pattern, however, was found for those who are less involved in romantic relationships.
When romantic relationships were considered less important, people with low self-esteem showed a more frequent use of Internet dating services (M¼1.13) than did those with high
self-esteem (M¼1.05), F(1, 2955)¼4.71,p<0.05. Thus, hy- pothesis 1 was not supported.
The main effect of social activity on the use of Internet dating services approached significance, F(1, 2838)¼3.46, p¼0.06. People who participated in more social activities (M¼1.12) appeared to use Internet dating services more frequently than did those who participated less in social ac- tivities (M¼1.07). Thus, hypothesis 2 was marginally sup- ported.
Finally, a significant three-way interaction effect (self- esteeminvolvement in romantic relationshipsociability) was revealed, F(1, 2838)¼6.63,p<0.05 (see Figure 1). Spe- cifically, the two-way interaction effect between self-esteem and involvement in romantic relationships emerged only among those individuals rated high on sociability. Among highly sociable people, those with high self-esteem (M¼1.19) appeared to use Internet dating services more often than did those with low self-esteem (M¼1.09) when romantic rela- tionships were perceived to be important,F(1, 2838)¼3.75, p¼0.05. When romantic relationships were not important, however, individuals with low self-esteem were more likely to use Internet dating services (M¼1.17) than were those with high self -esteem (M¼1.05),F(1, 2838)¼7.42,p<0.05.
No such interaction effect was found for less sociable people.
Discussion
This study explores three consumer psychological charac- teristics that may explain the use of Internet dating services:
self-esteem, involvement in romantic relationships, and so- ciability. Our findings demonstrate that sociability has a marginally significant effect on the use of Internet dating services. Specifically, people who are sociable are more likely to use Internet dating services than are those who are less sociable. This finding challenges the stereotypical profiling of Internet daters as being just lonely and socially anxious people.5Our study echoes previous studies that have found Internet daters to be sociable,3,10and implies that, for sociable people, Internet dating services can indeed be considered another way of meeting romantic partners.
This study further demonstrates a three-way interaction ef- fect among self-esteem, involvement in romantic relationships,
FIG. 1. Involvement in romantic relationships by self- esteem by sociability for social people.
and sociability. That is, the interaction effect between self- esteem and involvement in romantic relationships on the use of Internet dating services emerges onlyfor highly sociable people. Among people who are highly sociable, those indi- viduals with high-self esteem were more likely to use Internet dating services than were those with low self-esteem when they considered romantic relationships to be important.
When they considered romantic relationships to be less im- portant, however, those with low self-esteem tended more frequently to use Internet dating services than did those with high self-esteem. There was no significant interaction effect between self-esteem and involvement in romantic relation- ships for the less sociable people.
The interaction effect between involvement in romantic relationships and self-esteem for highly sociable people can be explained by the concept of the contingency of self-worth, which refers to the domain wherein people’s successes or failures lead to boosting or decreasing personal self-esteem.14 Each person has different domains that they invest in for their own personal self-worth. For some, that self-worth may de- pend on career success; for others, it may depend on being attractive and loved.14 Since people’s self-esteem is influ- enced by successes or failures in these certain domains, peo- ple tend to regulate their behaviors in those specific domains to obtain success and avoid failure.15
If the success of romantic relationships is the domain of self- worth, one may try to increase the prospect of success and avoid failure in romantic relationships. In the context of In- ternet dating, when sociable people consider romantic rela- tionships to be an important domain for self-worth, those with high self-esteem will be more likely than those with low self- esteem to use Internet dating services. The reason is that when sociable people consider romantic relationships to be an im- portant domain for self-worth, those with high self-esteem will find it comfortable to present themselves to a multitude of anonymous people, whereas those with low self-esteem will be more likely to experience a higher level of stress just thinking about disclosing and promoting themselves on the Internet. Less confident individuals may not want their neg- ative self-views publicized or viewed by others. To reduce such negative feelings and protect their self-worth, those with low self-esteem will adopt avoidance strategies and distance themselves from Internet dating services.
On the other hand, for those sociable people who donot consider romantic relationships to be important, it remains unclear why those with low self-esteem are more likely than those with high self-esteem to patronize Internet dating ser- vices. It is possible that since success in romantic relationships is not a valued domain for their self-worth, sociable people with low self-esteem will not find it difficult to present them- selves and seek out social partners on Internet dating services.
Since there is insufficient literature to explain this unexpected finding, future study is needed to explore it further.
Understanding the motivating factors behind Internet dating is critical for advertisers of these dating services as they develop their own user profiles and marketing strate- gies. Our findings indicate that sociable people are more likely to use Internet dating services than are less sociable people. To attract more potential users to Internet dating services, marketers need to provide a variety of tools that further stimulate social networking among users. For exam-
ple, marketers of Internet dating services can offer chat rooms and help users to form communities on their dating Web sites. Given our finding that involvement in romantic rela- tionships interacts with self-esteem to influence the use of Internet dating services for sociable people, advertisements for Internet dating services should utilize these three psy- chological characteristics in order to appeal more to potential users of Internet dating services.
Although the findings of this study have potential impli- cations for dating service advertisers, there are limitations as well. Due to the use of secondary data, the first limitation lies in the measurement issue. Future research should be under- taken to replicate the present study through use of more es- tablished scales. Second, this study explored three factors related to the use of Internet dating services that often require self-promotion. It would be useful to examine consumer characteristics that may directly influence consumer willing- ness or reluctance to use such self-promotion features of In- ternet dating services, which may be a key to the success of Internet dating services.
Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
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Address correspondence to:
Mikyoung Kim Department of Advertising, PR, and Retailing Michigan State University 578 Communication Arts & Science Building East Lansing, Michigan 48824 E-mail:[email protected]