It is intended to enhance the reader's understanding of the different ways in which triangulation can be used in a qualitative research study. The presence of the debate on the future development of qualitative research and its place in the development of EB practice illustrates the value placed on the paradigm.
PHILOSOPHIC UNDERPINNINGS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
This interest has led to the acceptance of qualitative research approaches as another way to discover knowledge. The appeal to nurses is that qualitative research methods attempt to describe and interpret puzzling human phenomena: phenomena that are not easily measurable (Krasner, 2000, p. 70).
WAYS OF KNOWING
Qualitative research provides an opportunity to focus on finding answers to questions centered on social experience, how it is created, and how it gives meaning to human life (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). In a human enterprise like nursing, it is imperative that nurses accept the utility of a research tradition that provides the most meaningful way to describe and understand human experience.
WAYS OF KNOWING IN NURSING
Munhall (2001) states, “all of the above models are rich and essential sources of nursing knowledge that can be studied from different perspectives of science” (p. 41). In the case of qualitative research and nursing practice, it is only by examining prevailing ideologies that nurses will be able to decide which ideology most reflects their personal patterns of discovery and meaning-making.
MEANING OF SCIENCE
If research findings do not lead to generalizations that contribute to the prediction and control of the phenomena under study, some empiricists would argue that it is not "good" science. However, the goals of this type of science—prediction and control—are less valuable if the object of investigation cannot be objectified.
Induction Versus Deduction
In a humanistic framework, the best scientists can hope for in generating new knowledge is to provide an understanding and interpretation of phenomena in context. Human science and the research methods that accompany it offer the opportunity to study and create meaning that enriches and informs human life.
RELATIONSHIP OF THEORY TO RESEARCH
In grounded theory, the researcher's goal is to develop theory to describe a particular social process. The point of presenting the debate about theory to the reader is to place the role of theory development within the context of qualitative research and to help the nurse new to qualitative research to begin to understand what down is a contradiction.
Objective Versus Subjective Data Within a Nursing Context
The extent to which the scientist is part of the development of scientific knowledge is also debated by humanistic scientists. Nurse researchers engaged in qualitative research recognize the subjective reality inherent in the research process and embrace it.
GROUNDING RESEARCH IN THE REALITIES OF NURSING
It is clear that subjectivity is acknowledged, but the extent to which it is embraced is based on philosophical beliefs. The extent to which a researcher can be objective, and therefore unbiased, is determined by the philosophical tradition to which the human scientist ascribes.
Emancipation
Researchers who want their work to be emancipatory and liberating should consider the methods of qualitative research described in this text.
SUMMARY
The nurse researcher seeking to use qualitative research must clearly understand the motivation for choosing qualitative research methods. These are offered to help the researcher understand the value of qualitative research in the development and testing of nursing interventions.
INITIATING THE STUDY: CHOOSING A QUALITATIVE APPROACH
Exploring the Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Another characteristic of qualitative research is conducting the investigation in a way that does not disturb the natural context of the phenomena being studied. Regardless of the approach, qualitative researchers will report the study findings in a rich literary style.
Selecting the Method Based on Phenomenon of Interest
Doing so would reveal a full understanding of the health culture of the neighborhood. Researchers must clearly identify the focus of the study and then choose the method that most effectively answers the question.
Understanding the Philosophic Position
To further illustrate this point, phenomenologists who support Edmund Husserl—a prominent leader of the phenomenological movement—and his followers believe that the purpose of phenomenology is to provide pure understanding. Supporters of the philosophical positions of Martin Heidegger and his colleagues believe that phenomenology is interpretive.
Using the Literature Review
The purpose of reviewing the literature in a qualitative study is to put the results of the study in context with what is already known. The purpose of the literature review in a qualitative study is to tell the reader how the results fit into what is already known about the phenomena.
Explicating the Researcher’s Beliefs
It is essential that the researcher is aware of the potential impact that imposing personal agendas can have on the process of data collection and analysis. Bracketing is essential if the researcher wants to share the informants' views on the phenomena being studied.
Choosing the Setting for Data Collection
Putting them aside means being constantly aware of what the researcher believes and trying to keep it separate from what the informant shares. Only by being aware of the distinctive nature of interactions and being in the field will the researcher be truly aware of the potential strengths and weaknesses of this form of research.
Selecting Participants
The researcher has no control over the study environment or those who provide information about the inquiry. They suggest that nurse researchers engage diverse populations using some of the following strategies: (1) seek approval and support from community leaders; (2) commit to giving something back to the group you want to study; (3) develop an ongoing relationship of trust and respect; (4) develop cultural competence and sensitivity; (5) familiarize yourself with the group before approaching it; (6) recognize.
Achieving Saturation
In the next chapter, a description of qualitative data generation and management will be provided to ground the reader in the language and processes of qualitative research. The intention is to give the reader of this chapter and chapter 3 a general understanding of qualitative research.
GENERATING DATA
An important concept to be aware of in the discussion about the researcher's role in qualitative research is reflexivity. Equivalence is a term used to describe the consistency of the focus group moderators or coders (Kidd & Parshall, 2000).
MANAGING DATA
These notes were important additions during data analysis because they provided validation of important points made by participants and facilitated appropriate emphasis on emerging themes. Finally, the time to review data analysis packages is before you begin data collection.
PERFORMING DATA ANALYSIS
For ethnographers, the focus of data analysis is to provide a description of a culture based on participant observation, interviews, and artifacts. Ethnographic analysis uses an iterative process in which cultural ideas that arise during active engagement 'in the field' are transformed, translated or represented in a written document" (Thorne, 2000, p. 69).
DEMONSTRATING TRUSTWORTHINESS
Another way to confirm the reliability of the findings is to see if the participants agree that the findings of the study are true to their own experiences (Yonge & Stewin, 1988). Sharts-Hopko (2002) posits that triangulation of methods has the potential to contribute to the reliability of findings.
PRESENTING THE DATA
Ethical issues and standards must be critically considered in both quantitative and qualitative research. The ethical issues considered are relevant to each of the qualitative research approaches presented in the text and must be considered within the context of the method chosen for a specific investigation.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
How did the researcher protect the physical and psychological well-being of the participants. It is the responsibility of the researcher to continually examine and question the ethical components of their work.
CODES OF ETHICS
ETHICAL ISSUES SPECIFIC TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Researchers must adhere to certain basic principles when conducting any type of research involving human subjects. Researchers must obtain informed consent, and informant participation must be voluntary, supporting the principle of autonomy.
INFORMED CONSENT
It is essential that researchers and participants discuss and clarify their understanding of the investigation (Alty & Rodham, 1998; Raudonis, 1992). Researchers should consider alternative solutions available for data generation, provided those solutions preserve the integrity of the study.
Confidentiality and Anonymity
Small sample size and thick descriptions given in the presentation of the results can cause problems in maintaining confidentiality (Behi &. In some cases, the dissemination of the research may have to be limited to protect the identity of the participants (Orb et al. , 2001).
Ethical Considerations Related to the Researcher–Participant Relationship
Permission must be obtained to use live quotes and the researcher must be sure that the raw data samples do not reveal the identity of the participant. All of these formats have the potential to identify participants; they should be stored safely and, at the end of the study, disposed of properly.
SENSITIVE ISSUES ARISING IN THE CONDUCT OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
An ethical basis for selection would also involve attention to the inclusion of those whose voices must be heard: women, minorities, children, the illiterate, and those of lesser personal or professional status. Their account of the complex emotional and ethical issues that can arise in research with vulnerable groups emphasizes the need for researchers to be aware of things that give them discomfort and discomfort in their research.
GATHERING, INTERPRETING, AND REPORTING QUALITATIVE DATA
Haggman-Laitila (1999) expands on the discussion of data authenticity and transcending the personal views of the researcher. The researcher is able to understand an individual's experiences only through the researcher's own perspective.
HUMAN SUBJECTS AND INTERNET RESEARCH
Stuck in the middle with you”: The ethics and process of qualitative research with two people in an intimate relationship. Ethical considerations in qualitative research with vulnerable groups: Exploring lesbian and gay men's experiences of health care.
PHENOMENOLOGY DEFINED
In other words, lived experience is what represents to an individual what is true or real in his life. Man is in front of himself in the world and in the world he knows himself.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL ROOTS
Preparatory Phase
German Phase
The intuitive process in phenomenological research results in a shared understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. As part of the reductive process, phenomenological researchers must first identify any preconceived notions or ideas about the phenomenon under study.
French Phase
Bracketing requires researchers to remain neutral regarding belief or disbelief in the existence of the phenomenon. Crucial to achieving an in-depth understanding of the method and philosophy of phenomenology is a return to the original works.
FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD
Compare and study examples of the Zderad (1976) phenomenon wherever descriptions of it can be found (putting descriptions in a journal). Does it contain a moment of experience that may ultimately be a necessary and sufficient component of experience.
Six Core Steps
DESCRIPTIVE PHENOMENOLOGY
As the researcher listens to descriptions of quality of life and delves into the data, common themes or essences will emerge. The researcher should dwell on the data for as long as necessary to ensure a clean and accurate description.
PHENOMENOLOGY OF ESSENCES
In a study of quality of life, phenomenological description would involve classifying all critical elements or essences common to the lived experience of quality of life and describing these essences in detail. Critical elements or essences are described individually and then in the context of their relationship to each other.
PHENOMENOLOGY OF APPEARANCES
CONSTITUTIVE PHENOMENOLOGY
REDUCTIVE PHENOMENOLOGY
INTERPRETIVE NURSING RESEARCH AND HERMENEUTIC PHILOSOPHY
In the analysis, there was a continuous movement between the whole and the parts of the text” (p. 103). The object of interpretation is a written description of the phenomenon (text).
SELECTION OF PHENOMENOLOGY AS METHOD
Interpretive phenomenology is a valuable method for investigating phenomena relevant to nursing education, research and practice. A positive answer to the following questions will help the researchers to clarify whether the phenomenological method is the most appropriate approach to the study.
ELEMENTS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF THE METHOD Researcher’s Role
The second transformation occurs when the researcher transforms what is seen and heard into an understanding of the original experience. Analysis of interview data dealing with the meaning of quality of life would involve clarifying the essence of the phenomenon.
Data Generation
She suggested that another group of informants reveal new information on the same topic. Therefore, investigators will be able to reach saturation only with a specific group of informants and only at a specific time.
Ethical Considerations
Data Treatment
Writing down any ideas, feelings, or reactions that emerge during data collection supports reductive phenomenology. After collecting the data and verbatim transcription, researchers should listen to the tapes while reading the transcripts for accuracy.
Data Analysis
Drew (1989) has offered the added perspective that the journal dealing with a researcher's own experience can be "considered data and examined within the context of the study for the role it played in the outcomes of the study" (p. 431). This step will help familiarize them with the data and begin immersing them in the phenomenon under investigation.
Review of the Literature
Once data analysis is complete, researchers review the literature to place the findings within the context of what is already known about the topic.
Trustworthiness and Authenticity of Data
What is the relevance of the study to what is already known about the subject. Given the subject of the study and the researcher's stated aim, how does the selected research method help to achieve the stated aim.
APPLICATION TO PRACTICE
The authors made the importance of the study explicit at the outset of this comprehensive and well-articulated hermeneutical investigation. Doumit and colleagues (2010) provide a good description of the methodological strategies used to conduct the study.
APPLICATION TO EDUCATION
The strategies used by the researchers are detailed and appropriate to achieve the objectives of the study. Ruddock and Turner (2007) provide an in-depth description of the analysis process and relevant findings.
APPLICATION TO ADMINISTRATION
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to obtain a more in-depth understanding of the coping strategies adopted by Lebanese women with breast cancer. Overall, the participants in this study described their journey with breast cancer as a continuous struggle.
GROUNDED THEORY ROOTS
During the Decade of Discovery, grounded theory emerged as an important research method within the field of sociology. The decade of diversification (the 1990s) resulted in the spread of knowledge acquired through sound theoretical research.
FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUNDED THEORY METHOD
But recently, O'Connor, Netting, and Thomas (2008) addressed the additional blurring of approaches to grounded theory. The primary purpose of grounded theory research is to discover theory from methodical data collection and analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978).
SELECTION OF GROUNDED THEORY AS A METHOD
The goal of grounded theory is not specifically to empirically test the theories that are developed. However, some researchers (Hogan & Schmidt, 2002) have tested theories that have been empirically derived through grounded theory research.
ELEMENTS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE METHOD
But it is important to note that theories discovered through grounded theory analysis do not need to be empirically tested to be considered valid. Although they consider theory development a worthwhile endeavor, they do not necessarily see it as the primary goal of grounded theory research.
Research Question
According to Corbin and Strauss (2008), the research question in grounded theory research identifies the phenomenon to be studied. Once a problem is identified for study, a research question is formulated to limit the scope of the study.
Sampling
Furthermore, researchers need one or more research questions that give them the flexibility and freedom to explore a phenomenon in depth. The research question then specifies the group to be studied or the area of interest and allows the researcher to consider where to collect data.
Researcher’s Role
Corbin and Strauss (2008) explained that saturation is "the point in the research when all the concepts are well defined and explained" (p. 145). Because it is impossible to foresee what sensitive issues may arise during data collection in a grounded theory investigation, researchers must be prepared for unexpected concerns.
Steps in the Research Process
DATA GENERATION
DATA ANALYSIS
Looking back Taking pride in accomplishments by reflecting on a time when you didn't know how to do something. Looking back Looking back can be a way to gain respect by reflecting on how things were more difficult then.
Production of the Research Report
Once theoretical saturation is achieved, meaning that the main concern of the participants is clear and the theory explains how that concern is continually addressed, the researcher can write up the research findings.
EVALUATION OF GROUNDED THEORIES
Striving for balance: A theory-based study of the health experiences of nurses with musculoskeletal problems. This chapter reviews published studies of grounded theory in the fields of nursing practice, education, and administration.
CRITIQUE GUIDELINES
This study used a grounded theory approach to develop a conceptual framework of the role of nursing in end-of-life decision-making in the intensive care setting. Further research is needed to better understand the role of the nurse in end-of-life care and decision-making in intensive care units.
ETHNOGRAPHY DEFINED
Systematic ethnography focuses on the structure of culture—what organizes the ways of life of study groups. Inherent in a critical approach is the understanding that it is through communicative practices and reflection that researchers and participants discern the absolute truth of a culture” (Manias & Street, 2001, p. 235).
ETHNOGRAPHY ROOTS
Today, the use of this method is encouraged by the search for cultures and behaviors that differ from those of researchers. As Hughes (1992) pointed out, “what is essential to anthropology [and thus ethnography] is [its] focus on species and holistic character” (p. 442).
FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ETHNOGRAPHY
As Deegan (2001) points out, “the inheritors of the Chicago tradition continue to weave a tapestry in what is now a considerably more complex and diverse discipline” (p. 22). Beyond these early developments, ethnography has expanded and developed to meet the needs of scientists using its various forms.
Researcher as Instrument
Ethnographic researchers, despite becoming part of the cultural scene, will never fully have the (emic) view of the insider. Dwyer and Buckle (2009) argue that the benefit of being a member of the group is acceptance.
Fieldwork
One of the ways ethnographers can begin to access the emic view is by interviewing group members, observing their behavior, and collecting cultural artifacts. The essence of ethnography is to determine what an observed behavior is or what a ritual means in the context of the group being studied.
Cyclic Nature of Data Collection and Analysis
Focus on the Culture
