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Download by: [Australian Catholic University] Date: 09 September 2017, At: 21:26

Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management

ISSN: 1936-8623 (Print) 1936-8631 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/whmm20

The influence of food aromas on restaurant

consumer emotions, perceptions, and purchases

Yuxia Ouyang, Carl Behnke, Barbara Almanza & Richard Ghiselli

To cite this article: Yuxia Ouyang, Carl Behnke, Barbara Almanza & Richard Ghiselli (2017): The influence of food aromas on restaurant consumer emotions, perceptions, and purchases, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, DOI: 10.1080/19368623.2017.1374225

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2017.1374225

Accepted author version posted online: 01 Sep 2017.

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The Influence of Food Aromas on Restaurant Consumer Emotions, Perceptions, and Purchases

Yuxia Ouyang

Pennsylvania State University, School of Hospitality Management, University Park, United States

Carl Behnke, Barbara Almanza, & Richard Ghiselli

Purdue University, School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, West Lafayette, United States

The effect of basil, bacon and hickory-smoked beef aromas on customers’ emotions, perceptions of food quality and the restaurant environment, as well as entrée selection were investigated. Following an experiment, a survey with 196 responses showed that food aromas had a positive influence on some emotions (pleasure, but not arousal), as well as customers’ impressions of the general food quality and restaurant environment;

however, the hypotheses that food aromas’ influenced congruent entrée choices (for example, the basil aroma increased purchase of basil containing entrees) were not supported. The findings have direct applications for the restaurant industry and offer suggestions for research.

Keywords: Food Aroma, Food Choices, Restaurant, Processing Fluency Theory, Stimulus-Organism-Response Model, Congruent Purchasing Behavior

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1. INTRODUCTION

Food aromas are powerful cues that trigger memories and inspire visceral reactions. Food aroma, as defined by Herbst & Herbst (2007), refers to the distinctive odor characteristic to a specific food. The use of food aromas in restaurants to draw customers’ attention, stimulate their interest and increase consumption is not a new marketing technique. Many chocolate shops, bakeries and cafes take advantage of inherent product aromas to attract customers (Mitchell, Kahn & Knasko, 1995). For example, Cinnabon, an American bakery chain, places its ovens at the store entrance, permeating the surrounding area with the enticing scent of cinnamon rolls to attract customers (Nassauer, 2014). In addition, some fast food restaurants have induced customers to purchase more by piping pleasant aromas into their dining rooms (Waterlow, 2014), while an experiment in a mini-mart showed that drink sales increased 300% after the introduction of coffee aromas into the store environment (The Independent, 2011).

The importance of the sense of smell to taste perception has been widely recognized. Research shows that it is our sense of smell, rather than the sense of taste, that recognizes and distinguishes specific flavors of certain foods (Lawless & Heymann, 2010) and facilitates the aroma’s influence on our expectation of a pleasurable plate experience. A positive connection between our senses of smell and taste coupled with flavor identification can lead to increased purchasing behaviors.

Food aroma is also thought to be an important variable in the theory of restaurant atmospherics (Kotler, 1973; Edwards & Gustafsson, 2008; Liu & Jang, 2009), concepts used by scholars to identify and categorize physical and man-made elements that

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influence customer satisfaction and behaviors in dining settings. Although these ideas would suggest that food aromas have a generally positive influence in a restaurant context, research has not yet shown how menu items might be influenced or the extent of such influence. In order to provide more information about the impact of food aromas in restaurants, this study focused on the influence of food aromas on congruent entrée purchases (entrées featuring an ingredient that matches the aroma).

Two theories supported this investigation of the underlying mechanism of the influence of food aromas on customers’ purchasing behaviors. First, the Stimulus- Organism-Response (S-O-R) model (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974) suggests that emotion and cognition (O) are significant mediators between environmental stimuli (S) (food aromas), and consumers’ purchasing behavior (R). Second, the theory of processing fluency suggests that olfactory stimuli may make cognitive information processing easier or more fluent, potentially leading to favorable marketing outcomes (Herrmann, Zidansek, Sprott & Spangenberg, 2013), defined in this study as aroma induced, congruent food consumption behaviors.

The purposes of this study were to evaluate the effects of specific food aromas on congruent entrée purchasing behaviors; customers’ awareness and evaluation of the ambient aroma in the dining room; and how food aromas affect customers’ general perceptions of the food and restaurant quality. This study contributes to the S-O-R model by exploring a different type of stimulus, food aroma, and the processing fluency theory’s use in congruent food purchases. In addition, this study provides applications for restaurants as to the effect of food aromas on congruent food sales and customers’ overall perceptions of food and restaurant quality, as well as further information about the use

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and value of aromas as a part of restaurant atmospherics.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Influence of Smell on Taste

Sensory and neurological studies have demonstrated that our sense of smell significantly influences our sense of taste (Callahan, 1994; Lawless & Heymann, 2010;

Spence & Piqueras-Fiszman, 2014). Humans have only a few different taste receptors with 30-50 cells in a taste bud (Lawless & Heymann, 2010). Sensory research is rapidly expanding our understanding of these taste receptors suggesting that they can recognize six primary tastes, which are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (Schiffman, 2000) and fat (Keast & Costanzo, 2015).

In fact, most of our taste sensation is actually determined by the sense of smell, through millions of olfactory receptors located on each side of the nose (Lawless &

Heymann, 2010). These smell receptors help to identify the specific flavors of certain foods, such as strawberries, cinnamon, or beef. The olfactory system enables us to differentiate hundreds of odors and to catalogue new odors as well (Lawless & Heymann, 2010).

When smelling, olfaction has been shown to play dual roles as both an external and internal sensory system (Rozin, 1982). The external role occurs through an orthonasal system that goes directly through the nose to perceive odors from the outside environment, while the internal role functions as a retronasal system in which volatile molecules are released through the act of chewing and swallowing, and then travel through the back of the mouth to receptors lining the nasal passages (Lawless &

Heymann, 2010; Spence & Piqueras-Fiszman, 2014). These two systems, combined with

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the sensation of taste, lead to the identification and recognition of specific flavors. Only when taste and smell co-occur does the unitary flavor emerge.

The close connection between the senses of smell and taste is frequently supported by clinical studies. For example, nasal problems such as congestion, polyps, sinusitis, allergies and infections can block one’s nasal canal (Making sense of taste and smell, 1995). After treatments including nasal sprays and surgery to heal nasal problems, improvements in ability to smell and taste are noted. In addition, the initial warning of anosmia (absence of the sense of smell) is the loss of taste sensation when food flavors suddenly appear insipid (Scott, 1987). Another experiment suggested that people with eating disorders (such as anorexia) also have a poorer sense of smell (Aschenbrenner et al., 2008).

In summary, since our sense of smell contributes so much to the taste sensation, and since food aromas help in food identification and awareness, the use of food aroma marketing techniques in a dining setting appears logical. Food aromas might be expected to increase customers’ appetites and influence their choices.

2.2 Effect of Atmospherics

The effect of atmospherics, defined by Kotler (1973), has been largely used to study the importance of the man-made elements of the physical and human environment and how these elements influence customer satisfaction and behavior in a restaurant context. According to Bitner (1992), atmospherics includes three dimensions: spatial arrangement and functionality; environmental conditions; and signs, symbols and artifacts. Later, Ryu and Jang (2007) defined six dimensions particularly critical to dining atmospherics, namely facility aesthetics, ambience, table setting, lighting, layout and

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service staff. In addition, a substantial amount of research has explored how specific elements of restaurant atmospherics impact customers’ emotional states, satisfaction and behaviors, including lighting (Areni & Kim, 1994; Summers & Hebert, 2001), music (Harrington, 2014) and scent (Guéguen & Petr, 2006; Gulas & Bloch, 1995; Spangenberg, Crowley & Henderson, 1996).

Because food is the main product of a restaurant, its attributes (particularly food quality) are a significant element influencing restaurant evaluation, choice and customer loyalty (Clark & Wood, 1999). On the other hand, limited research has been conducted on the influence of food aromas in restaurants. Early research by Guéguen and Petr (2006) on two non-congruent aromas in a small pizza restaurant demonstrated that lavender (but not lemon) aroma extended the length of time customers spent in the restaurant and increased food purchases. Later research by Moore (2014), showed that food aromas worked as a predictor variable, stimulated taste anticipation and activated expectations of pleasure and taste enjoyment, thus indirectly impacting consumers’ purchasing intentions.

Although these studies suggest that aroma is an important element in restaurants, research has not been conducted on the influence of food aromas on the purchase of foods prepared with that same food ingredient. More specifically, there is limited research on how, and to what extent, such influence occurs. This study examined whether a food aroma will lead customers to buy menu items that are congruent with the aroma, as well as the underlying reasons for such influences.

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7 2.3 S-O-R Model

Most research studying the impact of ambient scent on human behavior follows the Mehrabian and Russell model (1974) (also referred to as the Mehrabian-Russell or M- R model). This model suggests that environmental stimuli (Stimuli) affect people’s emotional states (Organism), which then elicit approach or avoidance responses to the environment (Response). Emotional states included two dimensions: pleasure, the extent to which a person feels joyful, happy, good or satisfied with the context (Robert & John, 1982), and arousal, the psychological state of excitement caused by the environment (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974).

Although the original M-R model only considered emotional states as significant mediators; later studies showed that cognitive states usually emerge independently as a significant path connecting atmospheric cues and human behaviors (Morrin & Ratneshar, 2003; Chebat & Michon, 2003; Mattila & Wirtz, 2001; Spangenberg, Grohmann &

Sprott, 2005; Mitchell, Kahn & Knasko, 1995). Favorable cognitive states refer to customers’ positive evaluation of the products’ quality and the environment (Morrin &

Ratneshar, 2003), defined in this study as the customers’ positive perceptions about the general food quality as well as the restaurant environment.

Responses in studies that have been identified as positive behaviors include the desire to stay longer, increase spending, and greater intention to return to a retail setting (Bitner, 1992; Spangenberg et al., 2006; Zemke & Shoemaker, 2007). In addition, early literature primarily focusing on emotional states showed that pleasant scents enhanced individuals’ positive mood and arousal state, leading to affective responses including

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more brand searching and longer time spent in retail settings (Bone & Ellen, 1999).

Mattila and Wirtz (2001) found that ambient scent increased participants’ pleasure and led to more satisfaction and greater impulse purchase behaviors. On the cognition research side, Morrin and Ratneshar (2003) determined that the smell of geraniums influenced brand evaluation, recognition and future intention to spend more time in a given environment. Spangenberg et al. (1996) reported that shoppers’ evaluations of the store and products as well as their intentions to revisit and purchase were higher in a scented store environment than in an unscented setting. Finally, in a comparison of the emotion and cognition links, Chebat and Michon (2003) found that under a light citrus scent, a positive emotion was induced by participants’ higher evaluation of the environment, thus suggesting that the cognition path gives a better explanation of the S- O-R model.

Because both emotional states and cognitive states contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of sensation-behavior relationships (Chebat & Michon, 2003), an integrated stimulus–organism–response (S–O–R) model was used for this study (Figure 1). This model is expressed as: food aromas acting as environmental olfactory cues (S), arouse favorable emotional states (O1) and positive cognitive states (O2), which lead to customers’ response behaviors (R) (Chebat & Michon, 2003).

Another aspect of aromas in S-O-R studies is cue congruity, which refers to how well the stimulus’ cue fits the environment (Bone & Ellen, 1999). For example, in the Mattila & Wartz (2001) study, a positive influence on emotional states and behaviors was strengthened when ambient scent and music were congruent with each other.

Additionally, Spangenber et al. (2005) suggested that when the ambient scent fit the

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contextual environment, such as the smell of Apple Spice Cinnamon during the Christmas season, it would lead to greater arousal and pleasure, more favorable attitudes to and evaluations of the store, and higher revisit intention. The effect of cue congruity occurs when there is congruency between the scents’ cues and consumers’ expectations (Spangenber et al., 2005)

Therefore, the current study specifically investigated the congruency of food aromas with meal selections in a dining setting. It was assumed that positive affective and cognitive states induced by the congruent food aroma would be likely to lead to corresponding purchasing choices — the congruent meal selection that featured the ingredient of the aroma being tested.

According to this integrated S-O-R model, the following hypotheses were created:

H1: Ambient food aromas increase consumers’ positive emotional states.

H2: Ambient food aromas improve consumers’ general perceptions about the food and restaurant.

H3: Positive emotional states will positively influence congruent purchasing behaviors.

H4: Positive general perceptions of food and restaurant quality will positively influence congruent purchasing behaviors.

2.4 The Influence of Processing Fluency on Purchasing Choices

Processing fluency refers to the ease with which new knowledge is processed (Schwarz, 2004). The underlying assumption of the processing fluency theory is that people spontaneously monitor the effort during the mental process, and that perceived

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ease provides a more accessible outlet for cognitive performance (Schwarz, 2004;

Herrmann, Zidansek, Sprott & Spangenberg, 2013). In other words, fluency as a cue facilitates a quick, effortless and inherent judgment (Alter & Oppenheimer, 2009; Brakus, Schmitt & Zhang, 2014). Perceptual stimulus characteristics such as familiarity, regularity, repetition, similarity, simplicity, symmetry and clarity simplify perceptual patterns, thus leading to easier, or more fluent, processing (Reber & Schwarz, 2006;

Reber, Schwarz & Winkielman, 2004).

High perceptual fluency has been shown to have an intensifying effect on the experience so that a fluently processed stimulus will increase the liking, positive impression, and selection of the stimulus (Lee & Labroo, 2004; Schwarz, 2004;

Herrmann et al., 2013). A taste experiment by Sulmont-Rossé et al. (2008) demonstrated this idea by inviting subjects to taste unfamiliar soft drinks once a week for a four-week period. Preference scores increased with greater exposure to the drinks, showing that a familiar taste can lead to processing fluency and positively influence participants’

preferences. Labroo et al. (2008) conducted an experiment of choosing “Frog” brand wines where subjects were first asked to imagine a scene in which the word “frog” was repeated in the description, then asked to choose from two bottles of wine, one of which was the brand “Frog Wines”. The subjects preferences for Frog Wines illustrates that repetition enhances processing fluency. Another study by Herrmann et al. (2013) found that in a single component aroma (orange) condition, subjects spent more money and made purchases more quickly than with a complex component aroma (orange-basil with green tea). An aroma stimulus, particularly when it is simple, appears to ease cognitive processing and lead to more positive purchasing behaviors. Herrmann et al.’s experiment

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in a retail store was followed by two experiments in which participants’ self-reported degree of difficulty, mood and actual performance on a cognitive task were measured under simple versus complex component aromas. The follow-up experiments provided evidence for mental processing fluency induced by a simple aroma.

Processing fluency theory has been largely used to explain customers’ preferences and their influence on subsequent choices (Novemsky, Dhar, Schwarz & Simonson, 2007) through the stimulation of different sensory systems, including vision, hearing, (Repp, 1997), olfactory (Herrmann et al., 2013) and taste systems (Lévy, MacRae, &

Köster 2006). Olfactory cues, compared with other sensory stimuli, require less focal attention or cognitive work (Herrmann et al., 2013) and are superior at facilitating the fluency of information processing because of their direct link with the brain (Lawless &

Heymann, 2010). Accordingly, this study used the theory of processing fluency to evaluate the influence of aromas on consumer behavior. The following hypothesis was proposed for this study:

H5: Ambient food aromas congruent with a specific entrée on the menu will facilitate consumer’s choice of that entrée.

In summary, the influence of food aroma on congruent purchasing behavior was expected to occur through the three routes shown in Figure 2. Two of these routes were based on S-O-R theory: congruent olfactory cues consistent with consumer expectations were hypothesized to lead to (1) positive emotions and (2) more positive perceptions of the food and restaurant, and subsequent congruent food purchases (Spangenberg et al, 2006). The third route used Processing Fluency Theory to hypothesize that congruent olfactory stimuli that are cognitively easier and more fluently processed lead to favorable

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marketing outcomes, specifically a congruent purchase decision. Figure 2 illustrates these relationships.

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Preparation

Three food aromas (basil, bacon and hickory smoke) were selected for the study for the following reasons: (1) all are familiar food ingredients and (2) the aromas were thought to be easily noticed and recognized. Pretests were conducted to determine: (1) which oil essences would be used, and (2) locations in the restaurant dining room where aroma diffusers should be placed.

Pretests of the commercially purchased oil essences conducted with 16 respondents revealed that the basil and bacon aromas were not recognizable.

Consequently a professional chef trained at the Culinary Institute of America was asked to prepare basil-infused and bacon oils from fresh ingredients. Further testing with the respondents found that the basil aroma was most recognizable when the basil oil was made from a blend of the freshly prepared infused oil and the commercially purchased fragrance (EdenGarden® Brand). Additionally, freshly prepared bacon oil derived from the fat of rendered bacon (Patuxent Farms®) was easily recognized, as was the commercially purchased hickory-scented oil (IndigoFragrance® Brand).

Locations for diffusers were pretested with 16 students who worked in the restaurant. With a dining area of 1608 square feet, the room was considered to have a relatively enclosed space where the aromas’ diffusion would be easy to control. Four electric diffusers (GreenairSpaVapor® Brand), which used ultrasonic technology to disperse fragrance oils into a micro fine vapor were supplemented with three ceramic

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candle diffusers where electric outlets were not available. Ceramic candle diffusers used fragrance free votive candles to warm the aroma oil. Thirty minutes after starting the aroma diffusers, the 16 student employees were asked to sit in different positions in the room and to fill out a very short questionnaire, including questions about whether they noticed and recognized the aroma, the intensity of the aroma and where they were seated in the room. Responses were used to adjust the locations of the seven diffusers to provide more uniform aroma distribution (see Figure 3).

3.2 Procedure

The main experiment was conducted from 11:30 am to 1:30 pm over the course of five weeks (three weeks with aroma treatment; one week before and one week after as the baseline condition) in a full-service restaurant located on a campus in a Midwestern university. The restaurant is used in food preparation classes and offers casual dining with a modern American menu that includes salads, sandwiches and entrees featuring fish, chicken, beef, and pork. The average customer count at lunch in this restaurant ranges from 40-55 per day with entrée prices ranging from $8 to $13.

One aroma was tested per week to avoid mixing odors. To minimize repeat customers, the survey was conducted on three different days each week. The same a la carte menu was used for all three weeks (except for a continuously changing daily special), and contained a selection of nine entrées. The aroma congruent entrées were Grilled Basil Salmon ($13), Chicken-Bacon Pasta Carbonara ($12), and Smoked Beef Brisket Sandwich ($12). The name of the aroma was mentioned both in the entrée name (with a bold font) and in the entrée description. Daily sales data were collected over the three weeks, as well as one week before (to minimize the impact of ordering new entrees

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simply because they were new) and one week later (to see if sales of entrees changed again). Because the time of the study coincided with the Lenten season, when some Christian denominations choose not to eat meat on certain days, the effect of Lent on food selection was included into the analysis as an independent variable, given that two of the experimental items were beef- and pork-based.

The diffusers were started 30-40 minutes before the restaurant opened to allow the aroma to diffuse to the greatest extent throughout the dining room. The researcher invited all customers to participate in the survey after they had finished their meal and before they left the restaurant. Participation was completely voluntary; however in order to achieve a higher response rate, a drawing for a $30 restaurant gift certificate was offered as an incentive.

3.3 Measurement

The survey began with two categorical questions: (1) which entrée was ordered (to assess whether it was congruent with the aroma being tested), and (2) whether the respondents noticed the ambient food aroma (to help determine whether subjects could have been influenced by the food aroma). Based on a review of the literature, the survey also asked questions to assess customers’ emotional states including arousal emotions such as “relaxed/stimulated” and “calm/excited” (Spangenberg, Grohmann & Sprott, 2005); pleasure emotions such as “unhappy/happy”, “annoyed/pleased”,

“dissatisfied/satisfied” and “melancholic/contented” (Mattila & Wirtz, 2001).

Respondent’s general perceptions of the food quality included “not fresh/very fresh”, “not tasty/very tasty” and “not appealing/very appealing” (Hackl, Scharitzer & Zuba, 2000) and of the restaurant environment included “bad/good”, “unfavorable/favorable”,

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“unattractive/attractive”, “uninteresting/interesting” and “low quality/high quality” (Liu

& Jang, 2009). Key words in the assessment items were bolded and underlined to ensure comprehension.

A seven point semantic differential scale was used for rating the questions with one equal to “relaxed”, “calm”, “unhappy”, “annoyed”, “dissatisfied”, “melancholic”,

“not fresh”, “not tasty” and “not appealing” and seven equal to the other pole of the scale.

The last part of the survey contained demographic questions (Table 1). Analyses were first conducted separately for each of the three food aromas, and then aggregated for further analysis. A 95% two-sided confidence interval was applied to all significance tests.

4. RESULTS

A total of 196 questionnaires were collected for data analysis, specifically 61 from the Basil week, 65 from the Bacon week and 70 from the Hickory Smoke week (Table 2).

During the three weeks, gender was fairly well distributed. More than 70% of the participants were younger than 50 years old. More than 85% people were familiar with the food containing the highlighted aroma, and approximately 90% of the respondents visited the study restaurant less than once a month. Table 3 presents the results of the two categorical questions, aroma awareness and congruent entrée choices. Only 27% of the respondents noticed the aromas’ presence. The hickory smoke aroma was the most noticeable as 31.4% of the respondents reported it, while the bacon aroma was the least distinguishable aroma, with only 21.5% of the respondents noticing it. Interestingly, only 8.7% chose congruent meals out of the total group. In each week, one participant who noticed the ambient aroma ordered the congruent meal. In total 17.6% of the guests in the

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group that chose congruent meals reported being attracted by the ambient aromas.

4.1 The Influence of Food aromas on Emotional States and on Impression

T-tests were applied to compare emotional state, food quality perception, and restaurant quality perception, between people who noticed the food aroma and those who didn’t. According to the results (Table 4), the basil aroma did not show a significant influence on emotional state but was found to have a significantly positive influence on food quality perception (t=-3.418, p=0.001), restaurant quality perception (t=-3.141, p=0.003) and the overall perception of food and restaurant quality (t=-3.659, p=0.001).

Subsequently, basil aroma results support Hypothesis 2, but not Hypothesis 1. The bacon aroma was found to significantly enhance pleasure (t=-2.035, p=0.046), emotion (t=- 2.389, p=0.029) (thus partially supporting Hypothesis 1), food quality perception (t=- 3.084, p=0.003) and overall perception of food and restaurant quality (t=-2.497, p=0.015) (in support of Hypothesis 2), while the hickory smoke aroma showed a favorable influence on pleasure (t=-2.102, p=0.039) and food quality perception (t=-2.507, p=0.015) (in partial support of both Hypotheses 1 and 2). When aggregating the three weeks’ data, food aromas showed a significant influence on pleasure (t=-3.112, p=0.002), emotion (t=-2.400, p=0.019), food quality perception (t=-4.993, p=0.000), restaurant quality perception (t=-3.412, p=0.001) and the overall perception of food and restaurant quality (t=-4.432, p=0.000). Therefore Hypothesis 1 was partly supported and Hypothesis 2 was sustained by the aggregated data, although each specific food aroma affected only certain dimension(s) of emotional and cognitive states; thus in the S-O-R model, S-O connected.

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4.2 The Influence of Emotions and Impression on Purchasing Choice

The second step of the S-O-R model examined the influence of positive emotions and perceptions about food and restaurant quality on congruent food purchases. Table 3 shows that in the Basil week, four respondents (6.6%, N=61) purchased the Grilled Basil Salmon, the food item congruent with the tested basil aroma; in the Bacon week, ten respondents (15.4%, N=65) purchased the Chicken-Bacon Pasta Carbonara; while three respondents (4.3%, N=70) chose the Smoked Beef Brisket Sandwich during the Hickory Smoke week. Logistic regression was used to analyze the influence of emotions and perceptions about the quality of the food and restaurant on purchasing choices to assess whether stronger positive emotions and more positive perceptions of the food and restaurant would lead to congruent purchasing behaviors. Arousal, pleasure, emotion (average of arousal and pleasure), food quality perception, restaurant quality perception and overall perception (average of food quality and restaurant quality) were independent variables. Congruent food choice (or not) was the dependent variable. One independent variable was included in a logistic regression model each time to assess its influence on purchasing choice; logistic regression analyses were conducted separately for the three food aromas, and then for the aggregate overall data; however, no significant results for Hypothesis 3 and Hypothesis 4 were found, suggesting that the O-R link was not supported by the data. Table 5 shows the results for the logistic regression.

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Figure 4 shows the three entrées sales’ percentages over the five weeks. As food aromas and the Lenten season might have had interactive effects, a general linear regression (GLR) test was used to analyze how food aroma on experimental days and Lenten days may have influenced the tested entrée’s daily sales percentage; subsequently, Lent was not found to significantly influence meal selection.

The basil and bacon aromas were not found to have significantly influenced the purchase of matching food items, however, the hickory smoke aroma was found to have significantly influenced the Smoked Beef Sandwich sales percentage (F=6.006, p=0.024).

In fact, the results of parameter estimation demonstrated a negative effect of the hickory smoke aroma on the Smoked Beef Sandwich sales percentage by 13.1% (t=2.108, p=0.048) (Table 6). Therefore, the data in the current study failed to substantiate Hypothesis 5. In addition, due to the higher sales percentage and the noticeable sales peak for Grilled Basil Salmon in Week 4 when the hickory smoke aroma was present, GLR was applied to test the influence of hickory smoke aroma on the Grilled Basil Salmon sales resulting in a significant positive coefficient for the interaction of hickory smoke aroma and Lent (F=4.630, p=0.044). During the Hickory Smoke week, Grilled Basil Salmon had a 32.4% sales increase on the Lenten day. The sales increase of the salmon dish might be partially due to the Lenten day when some Christian domination chose not to have pork or beef but fish meals instead. We could not rule out the possibility that the ambient hickory smoke aroma increased Grilled Basil Salmon sales to some extent.

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Figure 5 presents the results of the hypotheses in the Aroma Influence Model.

5. DISCUSSION

Effective marketing tactics are needed in the highly competitive restaurant industry. Diffusing food aromas in a dining setting, a traditional practice used by food stores to attract customers, has a scientific basis in the fact that the sense of smell largely influences the sense of taste (Callahan, 1994; Lawless & Heymann, 2010; Spence &

Piqueras-Fiszman, 2014). In addition, research has found aroma to be an important element influencing customer satisfaction and behavior according to the model of restaurant atmospherics (Kotler, 1973; Bitner, 1992). However, limited research has been conducted on the influence of specific food aromas on congruent food items and the underlying mechanisms behind the influence. Thus, this study explored the influences of three specific food aromas (basil, bacon and hickory smoke) on customers’ emotional states, perceptions about food and restaurant quality, and congruent choices in a restaurant setting. Such influence of food aromas was investigated through the use of the S-O-R model, where emotional and cognitive states were expected to play the role of mediators in connecting food aromas to congruent food purchases, and through the Processing Fluency Theory where simple food aromas were expected to lead customers to a congruent entrée choice.

The main findings are summarized as follows: Hypothesis 1 was partially supported and Hypothesis 2 was fully supported, meaning that in the S-O-R mechanism, S-O connected while O-R failed to link since Hypothesis 3 and Hypothesis 4 were not supported. In addition, Hypothesis 5 (suggested by the Processing Fluency Theory) was

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not supported as the basil, bacon and hickory smoke aromas did not lead customers to purchase congruent food items.

Although these results were unexpected, other findings in the study are useful in food and restaurant marketing. One key finding was that food aromas appeared to largely contribute to pleasure but not arousal as no aroma was found to significantly enhance arousal. Arousal could be simulated when the environment is perceived as novel or incongruent (Berlyne, 1967; Lévy, MacRae & Köster, 2006). Since participants were invited to conduct the survey at the end of their meals, they might not have been able to recognize any distinctive stimulus after a long exposure to the same environment. In addition, the bacon and hickory smoke aromas, as well as the overall food aromas (aggregation of the three weeks’ data) resulted in significantly higher ratings of pleasure.

Possible reasons why basil wasn’t significant in terms of pleasure might include that the basil aroma, as an herbal type aroma, was inherently different from the meat aromas or that the basil aroma was the most subtle of the three aromas.

Secondly, all aromas were found to have a significant enhancing effect on the perception of food quality. Customers might have thought that these aromas arose from the kitchen during preparation of the menu items. This result supports the role of food aromas in restaurant marketing because they appeared to enhance customers’

expectations of the foods they have not yet experienced. In terms of perceptions about restaurant quality, interestingly, only the basil aroma was found to significantly enhance restaurant ratings. The reason for this is not clear, but may also relate to the herbal nature of this aroma compared to the two meaty aromas. As fresh and dried herbs have been used to scent homes for centuries (Sullivan, 2012), the basil aroma might have led to a

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more favorable impression of the overall restaurant environment.

Lastly, although one of the study’s unique contributions is its focus on the influence of food aromas on choice of congruent foods; unexpectedly, the aromas were not found to increase their congruent meal options or enhance their sales. Several reasons might lead to these unanticipated results. The limited sample size for each week may not have been adequate for statistical analysis. Even further, the diffusing equipment may not have been strong enough to enable the aroma to affect all of the diners, which further reduced the sample size; less than 25 participants who noticed the aroma could be included into the treatment group for each aroma condition.

Contrary to our hypotheses, the results showed a negative effect of the hickory smoke aroma on its congruent entrée. This suggests the need for careful consideration and selection of food aromas. Some aromas, like the hickory smoke aroma, might have contradictory effects on purchasing choice and should be individually assessed for impact. It is also likely that some aromas would be viewed favorably in restaurants with certain cuisines and not in others. For example, the hickory smoke aroma that had a negative influence on its congruent entrée might have been favorable in a barbecue restaurant context. In addition, rather than the congruency effect, a complementary effect of the hickory smoke aroma on an increase in the sales of a light dish may have emerged here - as the sales of Grilled Basil Salmon surprisingly increased during the week with the hickory smoke aroma. Future studies should evaluate the possible effect of food aromas on complementary meal choices.

On the other hand, although a direct link to congruent food choices was not supported in the current study, in all cases, the presence of the aroma was found to

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significantly increase the ratings of the food and to a somewhat lesser degree, the pleasure associated with the experience and the respondent’s perception of the restaurant quality. Since other research has suggested customers’ favorable evaluations of food and the restaurant could potentially lead to revisit intention, repeat purchasing behavior or a long-lasting relationship with the restaurants (Cronin, Brady & Hult, 2000; Eggert &

Ulaga, 2002), the fact that the Organism-Response link was not supported by this study does not mean that it is conclusive. Other studies should consider adjusting the study design to include other aromas and foods, and specifically ask about customers’ food and aroma preferences.

IMPLICATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

This study applied two theories related to scent-induced influences on purchasing behavior in a restaurant setting. The findings of this study support part of the S-O-R theory that food aroma positively influenced some dimensions of emotional states and of customer impressions. In addition, the experimental design, use of diffusing equipment, recipes for the kitchen-made oils, and oil ratios may be useful in future studies.

The finding that ambient food aromas lead customers to have a higher rating of food quality in general may provide a direct application for restaurants wishing to increase visit and revisit intentions. Accordingly, restaurants may wish to consider designing open kitchens that introduce more cooking aromas into the dining room.

Support for this has been shown in other studies. For example, appropriate aromas have been suggested to effectively reinforce a company’s brand and add a scent logo to the establishment (The Independent, 2011). In practice, some food stores have been trying to make food aromas linger. Gumpel, the head baker of Panera Bread Co., installed a “show

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oven” without a hood to vent back into the store, thus strengthening the bread baking aromas (Nassauer, 2014). Damon’s Grill, a restaurant chain with an open kitchen, has set up specialized exhaust hoods that only vent the heat and smoke but keep aromas in order to provide the smell of cooking ribs and chicken in the dining room. Admittedly, blended odors, such as the combined odors of chicken and fish might be displeasing and unappealing. Traditionally, ventilation systems that exhaust odors are intended to prevent any mixed or offensive odors from seeping from the kitchen (Kazarian, 1989). The indiscriminate elimination of all odors, however, may exclude pleasant food aromas as positive psychological stimuli to attract diners as well. Therefore, carefully selected food aromas along with well-designed ventilation systems are recommended. Consequently, questions such as “what is an appropriate aroma for a specific type of restaurant?” and

“how should appropriate aromas be determined?” are suggested as potential topics for future studies.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE STUDY

One limitation of this study was that it was conducted in one full-service restaurant located in a Midwestern university, so application of the results may not be representative of the rest of the United States. Future studies are recommended in other types of restaurants in different locations. Second, limited meal choices were offered on the menu. The tested aroma represented only one ingredient in the tested entrées. More or different entrée selections are also suggested in future studies to control the influence of customers’ preferences or dislike of a specific food. Additionally, the current study was performed in a field setting, customers’ ratings and choices might be impacted by other factors, such as loyalty and attitudes to the restaurant. Therefore, an experiment under

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laboratory conditions may give more accurate measurements in a controlled environment.

Third, although 196 respondents might seem like an adequate sample size for an experimental study, when they were broken down into the weekly sub-categories, the sample size for each aroma may not have been sufficient to lead to significant results.

Moreover, fewer than 30% of the participants noticed, and thus were actually affected by the aroma, which further reduced the sample size of the treatment group. The sample size limitation impacted the validity and generalizability of current findings. Therefore, a larger sample size for each specific aroma is recommended for future studies due to the complexity of a restaurant environment with multiple entrée choices. Further study is also recommended with a larger sample size, since some dimensions of emotion and perceptions approached significance in influencing the congruent choices. An additional limitation came from the difficulty in obtaining authentic-smelling oils for aromas and the difficulties associated with infusing them in the restaurant. Finally, as effects from the two different types of aromas were shown to occur, additional studies should explore differences in food aroma categories, such as herbal, meat, fruit, or dessert aromas.

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Kim

Figure 1.

m, 2014)

An Integratted S-O-R M

31

Model. Sourrce: Chebat & Michon, 2003; Pengg &

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Note Amb H3:

impr Amb cons

Figure 2.

e. H1: Amb bient food a

Positive em ression of f bient food sumer’s cho

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32 oma Influen crease cons mers’ favora age increase will positive ith a specif

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Note cand

Figure 3.

e. ■indicate dle diffuser

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33

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Note Hick

Figure 4.

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Tested Entr horizontal a

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34 ercentage ov sil aroma, c

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-bacon aromma and s=SSmoke

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Note Amb H3:

impr Amb cons

Figure 5.

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35 Aroma Influ crease cons mers’ favora age increas will positive ith a specif

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36 Table 1 Main Questions in the Questionnaire

Part I

What entrée did you order?

Did you notice a food aroma in the room?

Part II

The overall aroma in the restaurant makes me feel a) Relaxed – Neutral – Stimulating

b) Calm – Neutral – Exciting c) Unhappy – Neutral – Happy d) Annoyed – Neutral – Pleased e) Melancholic – Neutral - Contented

The overall aroma in this restaurant makes me think the food is a) Not fresh – Neutral – Very Fresh

b) Not tasty – Neutral – Very tasty

c) Not appealing – Neutral – Very appealing

The overall aroma in the restaurant makes me feel the restaurant is a) Bad – Neutral - Good

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37 b) Unfavorable – Neutral – Favorable c) Unattractive – Neutral – Attractive d) Uninteresting – Neutral – Interesting e) Low quality – Neutral – High quality Part III

What is your gender?

In what year were you born?

Are you familiar with foods that contain the following ingredients? (Bacon, Basil, Curry, Ginger, Teriyaki and Smoked beef)

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38 Table 2 Sample Demographics

Week 2

(N=61) Basil n %

Week 3 (N=65)

Bacon n %

Week 4 (N=70)

Hickory Smoke n %

Total (N=196)

n %

Gender

Male Female

N=60*

28 46.7 32 53.3

N=63*

27 42.9 36 57.1

N=69*

39 56.5 30 43.5

N=192*

94 49.0 98 51.0 Age

<=30 31-40 41-50 51-60

>=61

N=59*

9 15.3 18 30.5 18 30.5 7 11.9 7 11.9

N=59*

21 35.6 10 16.9 17 28.8 7 11.9 4 6.8

N=65*

12 18.5 21 32.3 12 18.5 11 16.9 9 13.8

N=183*

42 23.0 49 26.8 47 25.7 25 13.7 20 10.9 Respondents NOT familiar

with FOOD containing the tested aroma

N=61 4 6.6

N=65 12 18.5

N=70 11 15.7

N=196 27 13.7

Visit Frequency

Less than once a month:

A couple of times per

N=61 55 90.2 5 8.2

N=64*

56 87.5 6 9.4

N=70 63 90.0 6 8.6

N=195*

172 89.2 17 8.7

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39 month:

About once a week:

More than once per week:

1 1.6 0

1 1.6 1 1.6

1 1.4 0

3 1.5 1 0.5

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Table 3 Aroma Awareness and Congruent Entrée Selection

Week2

(N=61) Basil

Week 3 (N=65) Bacon

Week 4 (N=70) Hickory Smoke

Total (N=196)

n % n % n % n %

Awareness Noticed 16 26.2 14 21.5 22 31.4 52 27.0

Did not

notice

45 73.8 51 78.5 48 68.6 144 73.0

Entrée Choice

Congruent 4 6.6 10 15.4 3 4.3 17 8.7

Not congrue

nt

57 93.4 55 84.6 67 95.7 179 91.3

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Table 4 T-test Results of the Food Aromas’ Influence on Emotions and Impression Mean

Difference

T df p-value

Week2 Basil (N=61)

Arousal 0.304 0.855 20 0.403

Pleasure -0.344 -1.225 59 0.225 Emotion -0.020 -0.100 59 0.921 Food quality perception -0.929 -3.418 59 0.001**

Restaurant quality perception

-0.904 -3.141 59 0.003**

Overall Perception -0.917 -3.659 59 0.001**

Week2 Bacon (N=65)

Arousal -0.387 -1.096 63 0.277 Pleasure -0.643 -2.035 63 0.046*

Emotion -0.515 -2.389 16 0.029*

Food quality perception -0.868 -3.084 63 0.003**

-0.553 -1.772 63 0.081

Overall Perception -0.710 -2.497 63 0.015*

Week2 Hickory (N=70)

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Arousal 0.100 0.419 68 0.677 Pleasure -0.545 -2.102 68 0.039*

Emotion -0.223 -1.690 68 0.096 Food quality perception -0.624 -2.507 68 0.015*

-0.345 -1.314 68 0.193

Overall Perception -0.485 -1.966 68 0.053 Total (N=196)

Arousal 0.009 0.052 194 0.958

Pleasure -0.504 -3.112 194 0.002**

Emotion -0.247 -2.400 80 0.019*

Food quality perception -0.764 -4.993 194 0.000***

-0.561 -3.412 194 0.001**

Overall Perception -0.662 -4.432 194 0.000***

Note. *Significant at the p<0.05 level. **Significant at the p<0.01 level. *** Significant at the p<0.001 level. SD=Standard Deviation. Arousal was calculated using the average of “relaxed/stimulated” and “calm/excited” and pleasure was calculated using the averages of “unhappy/happy”, “annoyed/pleased”, “dissatisfied/satisfied” and

“melancholic/contented”, while emotion was calculated using the average of arousal and pleasure. Food quality perception was determined from the average of “not fresh/very fresh”, “not tasty/very tasty” and “not appealing/very appealing”. Restaurant quality perception was taken from the average of “bad/good”, “unfavorable/favorable”,

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“unattractive/attractive”, “uninteresting/interesting” and “low quality/high quality”.

The overall perception was calculated using the average of food quality perception and restaurant quality perception. Equal variances were not assumed.

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Table 5 Logistic Regression Results for the Influence of Emotion and Food & Restaurant Perceptions on Congruent Purchasing Choice.

B (Wald) Exp (B) p-value

Week 2 Basil (N=61)

Arousal -0.040 0.961 0.939

Pleasure -0.069 0.933 0.900

Emotion -0.114 0.892 0.885

Food quality perception 0.381 1.464 0.450

Restaurant quality perception 0.779 2.180 0.150

Overall Perception 0.697 2.007 0.221

Week 3 Bacon (N=65)

Arousal 0.501 1.650 0.146

Pleasure 0.016 1.016 0.960

Emotion 0.771 2.161 0.146

Week 4 Hickory (N=70)

Arousal -0.479 0.619 0.397

Pleasure 0.532 1.702 0.356

Emotion 0.171 1.186 0.878

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Total (N=196)

Arousal 0.162 1.176 0.526

Pleasure 0.108 1.114 0.661

Emotion 0.353 1.423 0.359

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Table 6 GLR Results of the Hickory Smoke Aroma and Lenten Influence on the Sales Percentage of Smoked Beef Sandwich and Grilled Basil Salmon

Type III

Error df Mean

Square F B The influence of hickory smoke aroma on Smoked Beef Brisket Sandwich

Corrected Model 0.016 3 0.005 2.048 -

Intercept 0.062 1 0.062 23.875 0.028

Lent 0.000 1 0.000 0.058 -0.033

Smoke 0.015 1 0.015 6.006* -0.131*

Lent * Smoke 0.003 1 0.003 1.331 -0.084

Error 0.052 20 0.003

Total 0.332 24

Corrected Total 0.067 23

The influence of hickory smoke aroma on Grilled Basil Salmon

Corrected Model 0.055 3 0.018 1.661 -

Intercept 0.316 1 0.316 28.562 0.361*

Lent 0.004 1 0.004 0.401 0.210

Smoke 0.023 1 0.023 2.109 0.272

Lent * Smoke 0.051 1 0.051 4.630* 0.324*

Error 0.221 20 0.011

Total 1.204 24

Corrected Total 0.277 23 Note. *Significant at the p<0.05 level.