Student part-time employment
Implications, challenges and opportunities for higher education
Paul Barron and Constantia Anastasiadou
Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
Abstract
Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to examine the pattern of part-time working amongst a cohort of full time hospitality and tourism students studying at a university in Scotland.
Design/methodology/approach– Students studying hospitality and tourism management were chosen due to the vocational nature of their program and the part-time opportunities available in the hospitality industry. A questionnaire was developed to investigate the extent of part-time employment amongst hospitality and tourism students. The questionnaire solicited demographic information, level, type and extent of part-time employment. The questionnaire also explored students’ impressions of the benefits of part-time working, their likes and dislikes in their part-time employment and what they felt might be done to develop the relationship between the parties involved in part-time work.
Findings– Evaluating responses from 150 students, the study found that almost two thirds of this cohort were engaged in part-time employment and had been with their current employer for an average of 14 months. Focussing on aspects of gender and nationality the study identified that females were more likely to have a part-time job and students from Eastern European countries worked significantly longer hours than their peers.
Practical implications– It is suggested that educators more fully recognise the constraints of contemporary student life and consider the provision of flexible teaching methods, part-time contacts and formal credit for students’ part-time work.
Originality/value– The paper concurs with previous research into the extent of part-time working amongst students and it found that students from Eastern Europe were more likely to work part-time and that all students would like more recognition of their employment commitments.
KeywordsHospitality management, Gender, Scotland, Students, Part time workers, National cultures Paper typeResearch paper
Introduction
Working part-time has long been a part of the university student experience. However, various changes that have recently taken place regarding the student funding mechanism have resulted in increasing numbers of students undertaking paid employment during term time (Watts and Pickering, 2000). Although exact numbers of students working part-time are difficult to determine with a degree of accuracy, several studies have found that between 50 and 60 per cent of all full-time university students currently engage in some form of part-time employment (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002; Berkeley, 1997; Curtis and Williams, 2002; Lashley, 2005) and that this figure is forecast to grow (Curtis and Lucas, 2001).
University students involved in part-time employment have been the focus of studies in the UK for a number of years (Curtis and Lucas, 2001; Kelly, 1999; Lucas and Lammont, 1998; Watts and Pickering, 2000). This interest is due mainly to the relatively recent introduction of student loans that took the place of means tested
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
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Received 25 October 2007 Revised 16 May 2008, 30 October 2008
Accepted 5 November 2008
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Vol. 21 No. 2, 2009 pp. 140-153
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-6119
DOI 10.1108/09596110910935642
grants, which provided, to a large extent, government funding for university fees. The introduction of student loans gave rise to concerns regarding student hardship (Curtis and Williams, 2002) and the negative effects on academic progress of full time students having to engage in part-time employment on their studies (Watts and Pickering, 2000). While it is recognised that only a minority of students will begin to pay off students loans whilst they are still studying, it has been argued that that the concept of obtaining debt as a direct consequence of studying will encourage students to become involved in part-time employment. In addition to contributing to their educational experience, students must also pay rent, buy books and food, pay for transportation and social activities.
This study aims to develop an understanding of part-time employment amongst hospitality students. Specifically, this paper aims to determine the extent of part-time employment amongst a cohort of hospitality; to determine the reasons for engaging in part-time employment and to evaluate the impact of gender and nationality on the likelihood of engaging in part-time employment.
Employment whilst studying
The concept of domestic students engaged in part-time and sometimes full-time employment whilst studying is increasingly commonplace in countries such as Australia and the UK. Indeed Barron (2006) found that almost nine out of ten domestic students studying hospitality and tourism management at an Australian university either worked part-time or were actively looking for employment. These findings accord well with Anyanwu (1998) who identified that almost all Australian students work up to 30 hours per week in order to support their studies. In the UK, Watts and Pickering (2000) found that working part-time whilst studying full-time was an increasingly common phenomenon among students and while there were a variety of positive outcomes of working part-time, respondents generally viewed part-time employment as a necessity to survive in the contemporary higher education sphere.
Manthei and Gilmore (2005) found an overwhelming majority of students they surveyed were involved in part-time employment with eight out of ten students holding at least one job during term time for an average of 14 hours per week. The necessity for part-time employment whilst studying was emphasised in this study, which found that money earned was typically spent on essential living expenses.
It would appear that students tend to work in industries such as retailing, hotels and restaurants where the demand for labour has shown steady growth in western nations (Incomes Data Services, 1999). Employers in these industries need cheap and flexible labour in order to remain viable (Curtis and Lucas, 2001) and students wishing to work part-time fulfil this requirement. From the perspective of the student, part-time work is often an introduction to the world of work and their experiences assist with both personal and career development. However, it has been argued that the world of work should be more closely linked with higher education, through both formal periods of supervised work experience or more informally through students’ part-time experiences (Beard, 1995). When discussing the latter, the Dearing Report on Higher Education specifically states that higher education institutions should “identify opportunities to increase the extent to which programmes help students to become familiar with work, and help them to reflect on such experience” (Dearing, 1997:
Chapter 9, Recommendation 18). The underlying thrust behind this report is the
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requirement for universities and industry to work more closely together as a means of developing a link between students’ part-time experiences, their educational experience, careers guidance and, ultimately, employability (Watts and Pickering, 2000).
The necessity for part-time employment
The issue of financial necessity has been mentioned elsewhere in this paper and there is a plethora of research that concludes the students’ requirement to contribute to the cost of their higher education has required students work part-time (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002; Callender and Kempson, 1996; Curtis and Lucas, 2001, Curtis and Williams, 2002; Ford et al., 1995; Hesketh, 1996; Lashley, 2005; Sorensen and Winn, 1993). However, there are other, perhaps less immediately noticeable, reasons for working part-time while studying. Over 20 years ago Steiberg (1981) found that working while studying provides, quite naturally, students with an indication of the requirements that will be needed to function effectively in one’s later career.
Specifically, it has been found that students working part-time develop team working, communication, customer care and practical skills (Lucas and Lammont, 1998). The development of these skills appear to be more important for students who are studying a vocationally specific program and McKechnie et al. (1999) considered that such students can directly relate the experiences of working part-time which, in turn, enhanced and improved their academic knowledge, academic motivation and employment prospects. It might therefore be suggested that students involved in programs which are vocationally specific and who work part-time in the specific industry would, in addition to earning money, experience a range of academic, future career and skill development benefits. Consequently a number of researchers have concluded that a combination of financial need and the opportunity to gain experience and ultimately enhance career opportunities has prompted students to seek employment during term time in addition to the more traditional vacation employment (Curtis and Lucas, 2001; Harveyet al., 1998; Lucas and Lammont, 1998).
Balancing education and part-time work
A variety of studies have examined the impact that part-time employment might have on full time students’ studies. For example Manthei and Gilmore (2005) considered that working part-time left less time than desired for study and Jogaratnam and Buchanan (2004) found that new students who were balancing a full time academic load along with a part-time job were likely to suffer from stress. Indeed it has been suggested that a combination of studying full time, working part-time and being in debt can have a detrimental effect in the physical and mental heath of students and that the common method of addressing debt (i.e. increase hours worked), can create the perception of a negative effect on academic performance (Carneyet al., 2005). Curtis and Shani (2002) determined that those students who worked part-time were more likely to miss lectures and felt that they could have achieved higher grades had they not been working.
However in later research, Curtis (2005) found a majority of her (admittedly small) research sample considered there to be wholly positive outcomes of working part-time and that there was no conclusive relationship between the students’ marks and their perceptions regarding their academic performance.
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A clearer appreciation of the extent of students’ part-time working commitments is a common finding amongst research projects and there is a suggestion that part-time employment is not always detrimental to students’ academic efforts, particularly if the hours worked are manageable given their course load (Manthei and Gilmore, 2005).
Several researchers (e.g. Barron, 2006; Curtis, 2005) have argued that universities should be more aware of contemporary student life and introduce an element of flexibility as a means of structuring assignments and course requirements to recognise this, perhaps by flexible scheduling of class times and the offering of study support services, especially so given the increasingly non traditional students common in modern universities (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006).
The previous notwithstanding, the issue concerning the impact of part-time work on student performance is relatively under researched and the effects of part-time working have been viewed from both a positive and negative perspective. Positively, it has been found that students might acquire personal transferable skills, enhanced employability and increased confidence in the world of work (Watts and Pickering, 2000). From a negative perspective, reporting from a relatively small study in the UK, Lindsay and Paton-Saltzberg (1993) found a majority of their sample worked during term time and concluded that those students who worked part-time achieved poorer marks than those that did not. Other identified impacts include missed lectures and tutorials, reduced time for study and fatigue (Leonard, 1995), and the development of a conflict of interest between employment and academic responsibilities (Watts and Pickering, 2000).
However, this conflict of interests does not appear to unduly influence the attitude of academic staff to their students and Curtis (2005) found that support for working students is arbitrary and accidental and stated that “(academic) staff were largely unaware of the difficulties students face in juggling their dual roles” (Curtis, 2005, p. 501). Given that part-time working by students is commonplace, Jogaratnam and Buchanan (2004) consider that universities have a moral requirement to more effectively understand and manage the stressors experienced by students studying full time and working part-time.
Hospitality education and part-time employment
Curtis and Lucas (2001) contend that employers’ demand for students centre on their desire to control their employees. This control manifests itself in three ways. First, students working part-time afford employers an opportunity to control wage costs (Walsh, 1990) due to lower levels of pay (Arulampalam and Booth, 1998) and a reduction in employee benefits (McMullen, 1995) compared to full time, permanent employees. Second, students provide employers with a highly flexible workforce (Lucas and Ralston, 1996): numerical flexibility through increasing or decreasing hours in line with business demands, or indeed laying off part-time workers should business be poor; and, functional flexibility where part-time students might undertake tasks for which they were not originally employed (Lucas, 1997). Finally, it has been found that students working part-time bring certain qualities to employment that might be lacking in other employees. For example Lammont and Lucas (1999) considered that employers perceived students to be intelligent, articulate, good communicators, easy to train and willing to follow instructions.
It therefore might be seen that full-time students deciding to work part-time provide employers with a variety of advantages over other full- and part-time employees. It
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might therefore be suggested that the advantages these employees bring to the workplace is particularly valuable to the service sector in general and the hospitality and tourism industry in particular. The opportunity to closely control employee costs through pay rates and employee levels, coupled with employees that are able to multi task and bring certain qualities to the workplace would appear attractive to many employers.
Consequently the most common source of part-time employment for students is found in the general service industries with students being commonly employed in retailing, and hotel and catering establishments (Curtis and Lucas, 2001). Indeed Lashley (2005) found that 65 per cent of all students working part-time were employed in the retail or hospitality sectors; industries, argues Milman (1999) that possess relatively low entry thresholds and the opportunities for unskilled positions. It might therefore be concluded that students would be particularly welcomed by the service industry, which is characterised by high labour costs and extreme fluctuations in demand. In addition, students provide the service industry and particularly the hospitality sector with a ready supply of young employees who assist the industry in portraying a youthful image. It is not surprising therefore to recognise a coincidence of needs. On the one hand students wishing to work part-time enjoy the opportunities afforded to them by the hospitality and tourism industry, while on the other hand, the industry appreciates the flexibility and other benefits students bring to the workplace.
The popularity of the hospitality industry coupled with the attractiveness of hospitality students as part-time employees might present an opportunity to fill an increasingly common gap in hospitality management curricula. Evidence would suggest that in some higher education institutions less emphasis is being placed on the practical aspect of hospitality management education and it has been found that universities are either contracting out the practical element of their program (Baker et al., 1995), or removing it altogether from their curricula (Raybould and Wiliins, 2005).
However, practical skills, while perhaps enjoying less emphasis as part of hospitality and tourism curricula, are still felt to be important and it is generally felt that graduates should have some experience of the world of work, preferably in the hospitality industry upon graduation (Bakeret al., 1995; Ladkin, 2000; Raybould and Wiliins, 2005; Riley, 2005).
A number of key themes emerge from the above discussion. It has been suggested that, increasingly, students who are studying full-time are becoming involved in part-time employment as a means of providing income, gaining experience and developing links with industry that may be useful in subsequent careers. It is however, suggested that universities have been slow to recognise the necessity for students to become involved in part-time employment and consequently make adjustments to the provision of education. It seems appropriate and timely for educators and industry to take the opportunity to make part-time employment more formal and better controlled and subsequently provide students with personal and practical skills that might be useful in their future careers. It is suggested that advantages might accrue to the three parties involved in the education of hospitality and/or tourism management graduates.
Firstly, it has already been argued that the hospitality industry requires a steady supply of young, cheap, flexible and intelligent employees; one might assume that students attending programs in this area would be most attractive. For hospitality and tourism students, part-time employment in the hospitality industry, in addition to
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providing reasonably regular work and financial reward, will assist in personal development and the development of contacts that might result in the possibility of brighter employment prospects in the future. Finally, universities who are struggling with the debate regarding the cost or validity of practical skills training might be able to take advantage of the synergy that exists as a means of solving these tensions.
Consequently it is the purpose of this study to develop an understanding of part-time employment amongst hospitality students. Specifically, this paper aims to determine the extent of part-time employment amongst a cohort of hospitality; to determine the reasons for engaging in part-time employment and to highlight the impact of gender and nationality on the likelihood of engaging in part-time employment.
Methods
The notion to identify students’ part-time working patterns was brought about as a consequence of the results of a number of other studies examining the student journey (see, for example, Barron, 2007; Barronet al., 2007a,b; Barron and D’Annunzio-Green, n.d.; Barron and Watson, 2007) which the researchers have approached from a post-positivist perspective. From a practical viewpoint, it is held that the post-positivist conducts research in a well controlled environment, such as the classroom or within the framework of a focus group (Fischer, 1998) and thus uses more natural and comfortable settings (Dias and Hassard, 2001). Sparks (2002) considered that the post-positivist researcher conducts both individual and group research but solicits the emic, or insiders’, viewpoint. Consequently, the postpositive researcher aims to produce recommendations that assist in the general improvement of an issue rather than develop definitive results.
The sample and setting for this research were all undergraduate students enrolled on courses offered by a tourism and hospitality management school at a Scottish university. Based on a detailed literature review, a questionnaire was developed specifically to investigate the extent of part-time employment among the sample and separate questionnaires were devised for students with and without part-time jobs.
The first section of each questionnaire asked respondents to answer demographic questions concerning age, gender, nationality and ethnicity. This section also asked questions that attempted to determine motivations for current area of study and reasons for choosing their particular program at the university. The second section consisted of a variety of questions regarding employment such as: type of organisation, length of service, job title, nature of duties, level of responsibility and hours worked.
The last section contained questions about benefits of working, their likes and dislikes in their part-time employment and what they felt might be done to develop the relationship between the parties involved in part-time work. Those students without part-time jobs were asked about intention to work in the future and subsequently, different questions were asked of this group. The majority of questions required a Yes/No response but also presented respondents with the opportunity to provide qualitative comments as a means of elaboration.
In order to achieve a maximum response, and to answer questions students may have had during the completion of the questionnaire, the questionnaire was administered in the controlled environment of formal class time and under the supervision of the researcher. The controlled nature of the questionnaire administration resulted in a total of 232 useable questionnaires being completed by
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students studying courses within the school. The sample population comprised a majority of students (81 per cent) under 24 years and a majority of females (63 per cent). Of the 232 completed questionnaires, it was determined that 150 (65 per cent) students in this cohort currently had some form of part-time employment. While mention shall be made of those students without part-time jobs, students currently working are the focus of this paper and results from this group of students shall be discussed in the following section. Initial results indicated that this cohort of students comprised 28 per cent (65) in their first year of study; 20 per cent (46) in the second year, 37 per cent (86) in the third year and 15 per cent (35) in the fourth year of their four year undergraduate degree. No significant differences were found as a consequence of undertaking cross tabulations as a means to determine the extent of part-time employment dependent on year level. The data collected from the questionnaire were analysed via SPSS and a range of frequency tables and cross tabulations were generated, which allowed for the development of bar charts. These charts will be presented in the next section along with a selection of appropriate qualitative responses made by students.
Results
Initially, this research identified the reasons for becoming involved in part-time employment. It was found that financial concerns were the most frequently indicated with 60 per cent of respondents identifying this as the main reason for becoming involved in part-time employment whilst studying. Gaining experience (12 per cent) and developing practical skills (9 per cent), developing career contacts (8 per cent) and developing personal skills (7 per cent) were also articulated reasons. Students would appear to be aware of the growing importance assigned to employability as well as academic skills in the workplace and the need to have work experience by the time they graduate (Bakeret al., 1995; Ladkin, 2000; Raybould and Wiliins, 2005; Riley, 2005).
These findings would indicate that while financial rewards appear to be the main motivation for the majority of this cohort, non-pecuniary reasons for part-time employment also appear important. Respondents were also asked to indicate the type of employment undertaken whilst studying. It was found that the hospitality related employment was the most common with 62 per cent (93) of respondents. A further 20 per cent (30) worked in the retail industry.
Students were asked to indicate the length of tenure with their current employer.
Figure 1 details an element of polarisation regarding months employed. It can be seen that the majority of respondents had either been with their current employer for a very short or relatively long time. This research found that the average tenure with current employer was 14 months; however a significant number of students had also been with their current employer for more than 30 months (22 per cent). In addition, a number of participants stated that they were still employed with the company in which they undertook their student placement in their second year of study. Similar employment patterns were reported in previous studies (Barron, 2006).
There were a higher number of female participants than males in the study sample, which is an accurate representation of the student population of this cohort. Results indicated that more female students (69 per cent) than male students (57 per cent) in this cohort held part-time employment. A series of cross-tabulations were undertaken to determine if there was a statistical significance between gender and part-time
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employment. At-test was used and while it was shown that a greater proportion of females than males are working this difference was only marginally significant (p¼0:39).
Next the relationship between gender and hours worked was examined and Figure 2 indicates the breakdown of hours worked according to gender. It can be seen that the most common number of hours worked for both genders was between 16 and 20 hours per week with 39 per cent of males and 30 per cent of females regularly working this number of hours per week. However it can be seen from Figure 3 that a significant number of female students (25 per cent) worked 21-25 hours per week and 14 per cent of male students worked 26-30 hours per week. However, it was not possible to ascertain from the data if there is any statistical significance between gender and hours worked (p¼0:606).
The relationship between nationality and P/T work was also explored due to the diverse student population. In Figure 3, students are aggregated in groups according to geographical areas and depending in their presence in the cohort. For instance, Polish students appear on a group of their own because of their large numbers. It is evident that the large majority of Eastern European (92 per cent) and Polish students (88 per cent) were involved in part-time employment, followed by UK students (67.8 per cent).
Thet-test showed that Eastern European and Polish students were more likely to work
Figure 1.
Length of employment with current employer
Figure 2.
Hours worked per week by gender
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than other student groups (p¼0:001). Both male and female Eastern European students also worked longer hours than other student groups (21-25 hours per week).
It should be noted that overseas students are subject to legislation that restricts the amount of hours they are allowed to work per week (not more than 21), which would affect their employment possibilities. It is interesting to note that European (50 per cent) and rest of the world students (56 per cent) are much less likely than other groups to become involved in part-time employment. Indeed, even more surprising is the notion that according to this data, Indian students are more likely not to have a part-time job. However this might be explained by the fact that the Indian students in this cohort entered directly into third year of the four year Hospitality course so they had only been in a new university and a new country for a few weeks and subsequently might not have found part-time employment yet. Nevertheless 44 per cent were working part-time and it is suggested that more students from this group will seek part-time opportunities in the following weeks.
Students were finally asked to suggest how the University could become more involved with their part-time employment. Figure 4 shows their responses and while it can be seen that 9 per cent of respondents felt that the university should not be further involved, a significant portion of this cohort (42 per cent) wished to see the University get more directly involved with their part-time employment by building a direct link
Figure 4.
Student ideas regarding how the university might become more involved in the part-time employment process
Figure 3.
Part-time work by nationality
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with the employers and mediating with them on behalf of the students. A point that was clearly articulated by one female UK student (19 years) who suggested that the university should:
. . .help students find suitable employment which pays well and doesn’t detract from studies.
It is worth mentioning at this point that the school already has strong links with the hospitality and tourism industry through the supervised work experience placement offered in the second year of the degree. The link between supervised work experience and part-time employment was clearly made by students who participated in this research stating that they continued to work with their placement employers. This fact demonstrates the value and importance of placement in terms of gaining skills and experience and in linking employers with suitably qualified employees. Indeed, when considering how the university might become more involved in the part-time employment process one student felt that:
It could be done in a similar way as the supervised work experience I did in year 2 (UK male, 21 years).
A significant number (40 per cent) of students suggested that the university might become indirectly involved in part-time employment through providing greater flexibility in course delivery and assessment. A male Polish student (24 years) suggested that:
I don’t expect [the] university to be involved, but [a] more condensed timetable would be most appreciated.
Other comments indicated a desire for a greater understanding from academic staff would help them manage their work-study balance. Typical of these were:
When we speak to them they have little time for when we say we have to work. But [we] can’t afford university if not working. While we know university is the most important we can’t just write off working as we need money for rent, etc. They should be more understanding (female, rest of Europe, 20 years).
These findings also support Watts and Pickering (2000) findings that working part-time is a necessity for students rather than just a matter of choice.
Conclusion
Concentrating on gender and nationality, this study aimed to analyse part-time working amongst a cohort of students studying hospitality management at a university in Scotland. The extent of part-time employment amongst full-time students identified in this study are in accordance with findings from other Scottish and overseas universities. Similarly to Barron’s study (2006) of hospitality and tourism students at an Australian university, 83 per cent of the respondents were in employment or were actively seeking employment, the majority in the hospitality and tourism industry. This research has found a polarisation in length of tenure of part-time employment with the majority of students either just commencing employment or, demonstrating commitment to an employer, at least in terms of length of time employed. This research also found that similar level of employment between genders, but significant differences based on nationality with home students
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and those from Poland and other Eastern European countries more likely to become involved in part-time employment.
This research also found that students who took part in this study were keen that the university become more involved in their part-time employment. Indeed it might be suggested that as a means of responding to the increased emphasis placed on developing students’ employability skills, the skills gained through part-time employment might be acknowledged. This research would indicate that there is a need to formally recognise the part-time experiences of the students and consequently that universities address any apprehension in becoming involved in students’
part-time work.
Based on this study, it is possible to make several recommendations as to how this might happen. First, it is contended that as an extension of the supervised work experience element of the degree, the university provides information on part-time opportunities and essentially acts as a broker, agency or intermediary between the student and the part-time employment provider. Second, this research would suggest that students demand more understanding from the university regarding their need to be involved in part-time employment. This understanding might manifest itself in several ways; through merely encouraging a more sympathetic attitude to the demands of part-time employment by lecturers and tutors, to the provision of a more flexible education experience. The concept of increased flexibility brings with it associated-implications in terms of curriculum design and delivery along with student assessment. The growing number of students and the significant number of hours that students work, will create pressures for universities to make their courses more flexible. Universities might adopt flexible approaches to the number of subjects studied, the mode of delivery, the provision of subjects out with office hours and choice regarding methods of assessment. Finally it is contended that as a minimum, universities should provide more guidance to their students regarding part-time employment. This might take the form of general guidelines for appropriate hours, types of work, expected remuneration and conditions and information regarding appropriate employment legislation.
Part-time employment would appear to increasingly be an essential element of the overall student experience. Given the increasing costs of becoming involved in higher education and the potential benefits of part-time employment, universities might more fully recognise and support their students in achieving their educational and career goals. It is the aim of the researchers to continue this study as a means of more fully recognising the relationship between the student, the university and the part-time employer. It is hoped that universities are willing to recognise their responsibility to students and industry and positively respond to the realities of contemporary student life.
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Further reading
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Corresponding author
Paul Barron can be contacted at: [email protected]
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