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FUNDAMENTALS Vol. 1
THE JOHN ZINK HAMW OR THY C OMBUS TION HANDB OOK FUND AMENT ALS
1
B A U KAL THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
2nd Edition
CHARLES E. BAUKAL, JR.
Editor
Despite the length of time it has been around, its importance, and vast amounts of research, combustion is still far from being completely understood. Issues regarding the environment, cost, and fuel consumption add further complexity, particularly in the process and power generation industries. Dedicated to advancing the art and science of industrial combustion, The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition: Volume 1 — Fundamentals gives you a strong understanding of the basic concepts and theory.
Under the leadership of Charles E. Baukal, Jr., top combustion engineers and technologists from John Zink Hamworthy Combustion examine the interdisciplinary fundamentals — including chemistry, fluid flow, and heat transfer — as they apply to industrial combustion.
What’s New in This Edition
• Expanded to three volumes, with Volume 1 focusing on fundamentals
• Extensive updates and revisions throughout
• Updated information on HPI/CPI industries, including alternative fuels, advanced refining techniques, emissions standards, and new technologies
• Expanded coverage of the physical and chemical principles of combustion
• New practices in coal combustion, such as gasification
• The latest developments in cold-flow modeling, CFD-based modeling, and mathematical modeling
• Greater coverage of pollution emissions and NOx reduction techniques
• New material on combustion diagnostics, testing, and training
• More property data useful for the design and operation of combustion equipment
• Coverage of technologies such as metallurgy, refractories, blowers, and vapor control equipment
The first of three volumes in the expanded second edition of the bestselling The John Zink Combustion Handbook, this comprehensive volume — featuring color illustrations throughout — helps you broaden your understanding of industrial combustion to better meet the challenges of this field.
The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition: Volume 1 — Fundamentals
Edited by Charles E. Baukal, Jr.,
John Zink Company, LLC, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
Combustion
K11814_COVER_final_revised.indd 1 10/1/12 11:13 AM
THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY
COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
SECOND EDITION Volume 1
FUNDAMENTALS
IndustrIal combustIon serIes
Series Editors:
Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition Volume 1— Fundamentals
Volume II— Design and Operations Volume II1— Applications
Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
Industrial Burners Handbook Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
The John Zink Combustion Handbook Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
Computational Fluid Dynamics in Industrial Combustion Charles E. Baukal, Jr., Vladimir Gershtein, and Xianming Jimmy Li
Heat Transfer in Industrial Combustion Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY
COMBUSTION HANDBOOK
SECOND EDITION Volume 1
FUNDAMENTALS
Edited by
Charles E. Baukal, Jr.
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 2012920
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Dedication
This book is dedicated to the memory of Richard T. Waibel, PhD. From 1961 to 1969, Dick attended Penn State University, where he received his BA and his PhD in fuel science. He started his career as an assistant director of industrial energy utilization at the Institute of Gas Technology in Chicago as it was known at that time. During his tenure there from 1975 to 1983, Dick developed industrial scale combustion research projects with industrial clients, the U.S. Department of Energy, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Projects included combustion of coal, low heating value gases, oil and slurries, as well as pollutant emission studies. He continued his career with John Zink Company, LLC, in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he was instrumental in establishing John Zink as a world leader in low emissions technology. Dick authored numerous publications and is listed as inventor on 11 U.S. patents. During many years as chairman of the American Flame Research Committee (AFRC) and president of the International Flame Research Foundation (IFRF), he developed numerous valuable relationships between the industrial and academic combustion worlds, making friends all over the world. In addition to his academic and industrial achievements
“Dr. Dick,” as he was known by many, was an avid and accomplished fly fisherman, photographer, and world traveler.
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vii
Contents
List of Figures ...ix
List of Tables ...xxix
Foreword to the First Edition ... xxxiii
Preface to the First Edition ... xxxv
Preface to the Second Edition ...xxxvii
Acknowledgments ... xxxix
Editor...xli Contributors ... xliii Prologue... xlvii 1. Introduction ... 1
Charles E. Baukal, Jr. 2. Refining and Petrochemical Industries ... 31
Erwin Platvoet, Rasik Patel, David Brown, Jason D. McAdams, and James G. Seebold 3. Fuels ... 45
John Ackland, Jeff White, and Richard T. Waibel 4. Combustion Fundamentals ... 79
Steve Londerville, Joseph Colannino, and Charles E. Baukal, Jr. 5. Solid Fuel Combustion in Suspension ... 125
Steve Londerville and Timothy Webster 6. Catalytic Combustion ... 137
Klaus-Dieter Zschorsch 7. Heat Transfer ... 159
Jay Karan and Charles E. Baukal, Jr. 8. Flare Radiation ... 207
Wes Bussman and Jeff White 9. Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics ... 227
Wes Bussman, Zachary L. Kodesh, and Robert E. Schwartz 10. Oil Atomization ... 309
I.-Ping Chung and Steve Londerville 11. Cold Flow Modeling ... 327
Christopher Q. Jian 12. Thermal Efficiency ... 339
Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and Wes Bussman 13. CFD-Based Combustion Modeling ... 353
Michael A. Lorra and Shirley X. Chen
viii Contents
14. Pollutant Emissions ... 381
Charles E. Baukal, Jr., I.-Ping Chung, Steve Londerville, James G. Seebold, and Richard T. Waibel 15. NOx Emissions ... 417
Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and Wes Bussman 16. Noise ... 479
Wes Bussman, Jay Karan, Carl-Christian Hantschk, and Edwin Schorer 17. Combustion Training ... 513
Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and Myra N. Crawford-Fanning Appendix A: Units and Conversions ... 551
Appendix B: Physical Properties of Materials ... 555
Appendix C: Properties of Gasses and Liquids... 563
Appendix D: Properties of Solids ... 583
Index ... 587
ix Figure 1.1 Operating refineries capacity and gross input (thousands of barrels per day) and number of
operating refineries in the United States from 1949 to 2011. ... 3
Figure 1.2 Product mix for U.S. refineries from 1949 to 2011... 3
Figure 1.3 Annual final energy consumption for U.S. refineries from 1986 to 2010. ... 4
Figure 1.4 Energy cost for U.S. refineries from 1988 to 2005 ... 4
Figure 1.5 Typical petroleum refinery. ... 5
Figure 1.6 Offshore oil rig flare. ... 6
Figure 1.7 Flare pilot. ... 6
Figure 1.8 Duct burner flame. ... 6
Figure 1.9 Schematic of a duct burner used to enhance the power from a gas turbine. ... 6
Figure 1.10 Front of a boiler burner. ... 7
Figure 1.11 Thermal oxidizer drawing. ... 7
Figure 1.12 Vapor combustor system. ... 7
Figure 1.13 Biogas flare system. ... 8
Figure 1.14 Vapor recovery system. ... 8
Figure 1.15 Flare gas recovery system. ... 8
Figure 1.16 Schematics of (a) side- and (b) top-fired reformers ... 11
Figure 1.17 Down-fired burner commonly used in top-fired reformers. ... 11
Figure 1.18 Elevation view of a terrace-wall-fired furnace. ... 11
Figure 1.19 Schematic of a process heater ... 12
Figure 1.20 Schematic of a typical process heater ... 12
Figure 1.21 Fired heater size distribution ... 13
Figure 1.22 Schematic of center or target wall firing configuration. ... 14
Figure 1.23 Horizontal floor-fired burners firing toward a center wall. ... 14
Figure 1.24 Wall-fired burner. ... 14
Figure 1.25 Schematic of a horizontally mounted, vertically fired burner configuration. ... 14
Figure 1.26 Examples of process heaters ... 15
Figure 1.27 Typical heater types ... 16
Figure 1.28 Cabin heater. ... 17
Figure 1.29 Crude unit burners. ... 18
Figure 1.30 Typical burner arrangements ... 19
Figure 1.31 Drawing of a typical combination oil and gas burner. ... 20
Figure 1.32 Process heater heat balance ... 20
List of Figures
x List of Figures
Figure 1.33 Schematic of a burner (B) arrangement in the floor of vertical cylindrical furnaces. ... 20
Figure 1.34 Schematic of a burner (B) arrangement in the floor of rectangular cabin heaters. ... 21
Figure 1.35 Adiabatic equilibrium NO and CO as a function of the equivalence ratio for an air/CH4 flame. ... 21
Figure 1.36 Schematic of an oxy/fuel burner. ... 22
Figure 1.37 Schematic of an oxygen-enriched air/fuel burner. ... 22
Figure 1.38 Schematic of a burner using oxygen + recycled combustion products. ... 23
Figure 1.39 Schematic of flue gas recirculation. ... 23
Figure 1.40 HALO®™ burner designed to entrain furnace gases into the flame. ... 23
Figure 1.41 Schematic of a premix burner. ... 24
Figure 1.42 Drawing of a typical premix (radiant wall) gas burner. ... 24
Figure 1.43 Painting of a diffusion flame ... 24
Figure 1.44 Schematic of a diffusion burner. ... 25
Figure 1.45 Schematic of a partially premixed burner. ... 25
Figure 1.46 Schematic of a staged-air burner. ... 25
Figure 1.47 Drawing of a typical staged-air combination oil and gas burner. ... 25
Figure 1.48 Schematic of a staged-fuel burner. ... 25
Figure 1.49 Drawing of a typical staged-fuel gas burner. ... 25
Figure 1.50 Drawing of a typical natural draft gas burner. ... 26
Figure 1.51 Natural draft burner. ... 26
Figure 1.52 Flames impinging on tubes in a cabin heater. ... 27
Figure 1.53 Flames pulled toward the wall. ... 27
Figure 1.54 Oil burner needing service. ... 27
Figure 1.55 Highly lifted down-fired burner flame. ... 27
Figure 1.56 John Zink Co. LLC (Tulsa, Oklahoma) R&D Test Facility. ... 28
Figure 1.57 Cold flow testing. ... 28
Figure 1.58 Example of CFD model result. ... 28
Figure 1.59 Virtual reality engineering simulation. ... 29
Figure 2.1 Typical refinery process flow diagram. ... 34
Figure 2.2 Simplified crude distillation flow diagram. ... 35
Figure 2.3 Typical visbreaking flow diagram. ... 35
Figure 2.4 Typical hydrotreating flow diagram. ... 36
Figure 2.5 Catalytic reforming process flow diagram. ... 37
Figure 2.6 Simplified process diagram for delayed coking. ... 37
Figure 2.7 Simplified process diagram of a steam reforming based hydrogen plant. ... 39
Figure 2.8 Typical PSA system flow diagram ... 40
Figure 2.9 Typical flow diagram of an ammonia plant ... 40
Figure 2.10 Typical methanol plant process flow diagram ... 41
List of Figures xi
Figure 3.1 Capping a burning oil well. ... 46
Figure 3.2 Refinery flow diagram ... 49
Figure 3.3 Flow diagram of UOP fluid catalytic cracking complex ... 50
Figure 3.4 Simplified process flow diagram for hydrogen reforming/pressure swing adsorption ... 53
Figure 3.5 Simplified process flow diagram for Flexicoking ... 54
Figure 3.6 Viewing oil flame through a burner plenum. ... 56
Figure 3.7 Burner firing heavy oil (1). ... 56
Figure 3.8 Burner firing heavy oil (2). ... 56
Figure 3.9 Naphtha distillation curve. ... 57
Figure 3.10 Flame speed for various gases ... 64
Figure 3.11 Crude oil distillation curve. ... 65
Figure 3.12 Viscosity of fuel oils. ... 67
Figure 3.13 100% TNG flame. ... 69
Figure 3.14 80% TNG/20% N2 flame. ... 69
Figure 3.15 90% TNG/10% N2 flame. ... 70
Figure 3.16 90% TNG/10% H2 flame. ... 70
Figure 3.17 75% TNG/25% H2 flame. ... 70
Figure 3.18 25% TNG/75% H2 flame. ... 70
Figure 3.19 50% TNG/50% H2 flame. ... 71
Figure 3.20 100% H2 flame. ... 71
Figure 3.21 50% TNG/25% H2/25% C3H8 flame. ... 71
Figure 3.22 100% C3H8 flame. ... 71
Figure 3.23 50% TNG/50% C3H8 flame. ... 72
Figure 3.24 100% C4H10 flame. ... 72
Figure 3.25 Simulated cracked gas flame. ... 72
Figure 3.26 Simulated FCC gas flame. ... 72
Figure 3.27 Simulated coking gas flame. ... 73
Figure 3.28 Simulated reforming gas flame. ... 73
Figure 3.29 100% Tulsa natural gas. ... 73
Figure 3.30 100% hydrogen. ... 73
Figure 3.31 100% propane. ... 74
Figure 3.32 50% hydrogen/50% propane. ... 74
Figure 3.33 50% hydrogen/50% Tulsa natural gas. ... 74
Figure 3.34 50% propane/50% Tulsa natural gas. ... 74
Figure 3.35 25% hydrogen/75% propane. ... 75
Figure 3.36 75% hydrogen/25% propane. ... 75
Figure 3.37 25% hydrogen/75% Tulsa natural gas. ... 75
xii List of Figures
Figure 3.38 75% hydrogen/25% Tulsa natural gas. ... 75
Figure 3.39 25% propane/75% Tulsa natural gas. ... 76
Figure 3.40 75% propane/25% Tulsa natural gas. ... 76
Figure 3.41 25% hydrogen/25% propane/50% Tulsa natural gas. ... 76
Figure 3.42 50% hydrogen/25% propane/25% Tulsa natural gas... 76
Figure 4.1 Typical cabin-style process heater. ... 81
Figure 4.2 Carbon atom with six protons, neutrons, and electrons. ... 82
Figure 4.3 Periodic table. ... 83
Figure 4.4 Composition of air by volume ... 86
Figure 4.5 Species concentration versus excess air for the following fuels ... 90
Figure 4.6 Adiabatic flame temperature versus equivalence ratio for air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8 flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 104
Figure 4.7 Adiabatic flame temperature versus air preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8 flames where the fuel is at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 104
Figure 4.8 Adiabatic flame temperature versus fuel preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8 flames where the air is at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 105
Figure 4.9 Adiabatic flame temperature versus fuel blend (CH4/H2 and CH4/N2) composition for stoichiometric air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ...106
Figure 4.10 Adiabatic flame temperature versus fuel blend (CH4/H2) composition and air preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/fuel flames where the fuel is at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 107
Figure 4.11 Sample Sankey diagram showing distribution of energy in a combustion system. ... 107
Figure 4.12 Available heat versus gas temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8 flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 108
Figure 4.13 Available heat versus air preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8 flames at an exhaust gas temperature of 2000°F (1100°C) where the fuel is at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 109
Figure 4.14 Available heat versus fuel preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8 flames at an exhaust gas temperature of 2000°F (1100°C) where the air is at ambient temperature and pressure. ...110
Figure 4.15 Graphical representation of ignition and heat release. ...110
Figure 4.16 Species concentration versus stoichiometric ratio for the following fuels ...113
Figure 4.17 Adiabatic equilibrium reaction process. ...116
Figure 4.18 Adiabatic equilibrium calculations for the predicted gas composition as a function of the O2:CH4 stoichiometry for air/CH4 flames where the air and CH4 are at ambient temperature and pressure. ...116
Figure 4.19 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the air preheat temperature for air/CH4 flames where the CH4 is at ambient temperature and pressure. ...117
Figure 4.20 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the air preheat temperature for air/CH4 flames where the CH4 is at ambient temperature and pressure. ...118
List of Figures xiii
Figure 4.21 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the fuel preheat temperature for air/CH4 flames where the air
is at ambient temperature and pressure. ...119
Figure 4.22 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the fuel preheat temperature for air/CH4 flames where the air is at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 120
Figure 4.23 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the fuel blend (H2 + CH4) composition for air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 120
Figure 4.24 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the fuel blend (H2 + CH4) composition for air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 121
Figure 4.25 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the fuel blend (N2 + CH4) composition for air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 121
Figure 4.26 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the fuel blend (N2 + CH4) composition for air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 122
Figure 4.27 Equilibrium calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the combustion product temperature for air/CH4 flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 122
Figure 4.28 Equilibrium calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the combustion product temperature for air/CH4 flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 123
Figure 5.1 Subbituminous char burnout Coen code A = 60 and E = 17,150. ... 129
Figure 5.2 Pet coke char burnout Coen Code A = 15 and E = 19,000. ... 129
Figure 5.3 Coal dust flame velocity versus equivalence ratio ... 129
Figure 5.4 Fuel introduction for conveying options. ... 131
Figure 5.5 Front of Coen biomass burner. ... 132
Figure 6.1 Catalyst’s function. ... 138
Figure 6.2 (a) Bulk materials: pellets catalyst–spheres and rings (balls, rings, and cylinders) and (b) types of monolith catalyst monolith (honeycomb) material. ... 140
Figure 6.3 Typical horizontal catalytic system with a preheat exchanger. ... 143
Figure 6.4 Typical compact catalytic waste gas cleaning system. ... 144
Figure 6.5 Typical required reactor inlet/reaction temperature, Tc. ... 145
Figure 6.6 The arrangement is a catalyst facility consisting of ceramic monoliths. ... 147
Figure 6.7 Reactor designs and flows: (a) Single-bed reactor, (b) vertical two-bed reactor (operating temperature > 480°C, ΔTc > 150 K), (c) horizontal cylinder two-bed reactor (operating temperature > 480°C, ΔTc > 150 K), and (d) multiple-bed reactor. ... 148
Figure 6.8 Simple catalytic waste gas cleaning system. ... 152
Figure 6.9 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with a burner and blower. ... 153
Figure 6.10 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with a heat exchanger. ... 153
Figure 6.11 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with hot water/air production. ... 154
xiv List of Figures
Figure 6.12 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with steam production and waste liquid injection. ... 154
Figure 6.13 Simple catalytic waste gas cleaning system with regenerative heat transfer system. ... 155
Figure 6.14 Regenerative heat transfer system, temperature profile. ... 155
Figure 6.15 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with regenerative heat transfer system including back purge flow system. ... 156
Figure 6.16 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with regenerative heat transfer system, one-way flow reactor. ... 157
Figure 7.1 Typical fired heater. ...161
Figure 7.2 Heat transfer through a plane wall: (a) temperature distribution and (b) equivalent thermal circuit ... 164
Figure 7.3 Equivalent thermal circuit for a series composite wall ... 164
Figure 7.4 Temperature drop due to thermal contact resistance. ... 165
Figure 7.5 Temperature distribution for a composite cylindrical wall ... 166
Figure 7.6 Thermal conductivity of (a) some commonly used steels and alloys and (b) some refractory materials. ... 169
Figure 7.7 Temperature–thickness relationships corresponding to different thermal conductivities... 170
Figure 7.8 Thermal boundary layer development in a heated circular tube ... 171
Figure 7.9 Orthogonal oscillations of electric and magnetic waves in the propagation of electromagnetic waves. ... 177
Figure 7.10 Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. ... 177
Figure 7.11 Spectral blackbody emissive power. ... 179
Figure 7.12 Radiation transfer between two surfaces approximated as gray bodies. ... 180
Figure 7.13 Network representation of radiative exchange between surface i and the remaining surfaces of an enclosure ... 181
Figure 7.14 View factor of radiation exchange between faces of area dAi and dAj ... 181
Figure 7.15 View factor for aligned parallel rectangles... 184
Figure 7.16 View factor for coaxial parallel disks ... 184
Figure 7.17 View factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge ... 185
Figure 7.18 Infrared thermal image of a flame in a furnace. ... 185
Figure 7.19 Emission bands of (a) CO2 and (b) H2O. ... 186
Figure 7.20 Total emissivity of water vapor at the reference state of a total gas pressure p = 1 bar and a partial pressure of H2O pa→ 0 ... 188
Figure 7.21 Total emissivity of carbon dioxide at the reference state of a total gas pressure p = 1 bar and a partial pressure of CO2 pa→ 0 ... 188
Figure 7.22 Radiation heat transfer correction factor for mixtures of water vapor and carbon dioxide. ... 189
Figure 7.23 Photographic view of a luminous flame. ... 192
Figure 7.24 Photographic view of a nonluminous flame. ... 192
Figure 7.25 Photographic view of a radiant wall burner. ... 193
Figure 7.26 Vertical heat flux distribution for oil and gas firing in a vertical tube furnace. ... 193
List of Figures xv
Figure 7.27 Distribution of dimensionless average radiant flux density at the tube surfaces for various
flame lengths ... 194
Figure 7.28 Maximum flame radiation as a function of the C/H weight ratio in the fuel. ... 195
Figure 7.29 Radiation heat transfer in a cylindrical furnace. ... 197
Figure 7.30 Cross section of a furnace wall. ... 198
Figure 7.31 Cross section of a process tube. ... 199
Figure 8.1 Electromagnetic spectrum. ... 208
Figure 8.2 Flare firing propane at 60,000 lb/h (27,000 kg/h) corresponding to an HR rate equal to 1.2 billion Btu/h (350 MW). ... 209
Figure 8.3 Illustration defining radiation level. ... 209
Figure 8.4 Solar radiation level at angles normal to the solar beam and horizontal to the surface of the Earth in Tulsa, Oklahoma. ... 210
Figure 8.5 View of Tulsa from the sun during the months of January and July. ... 210
Figure 8.6 Effects of doubling the distance of the flame epicenter from an observer. ...211
Figure 8.7 Relative radiation level as a function of distance from the source. ... 212
Figure 8.8 Spectral emission of radiation from luminous and nonluminous flames ... 212
Figure 8.9 Generalized diagram showing relative atmospheric radiation transmission of different wavelengths ... 213
Figure 8.10 Estimates of the fraction of flame radiation transmitted through the atmosphere at various distances and percent relative humidity ...214
Figure 8.11 API 521 recommendations. ...216
Figure 8.12 Various models commonly used in industry to estimate flare radiation. ... 217
Figure 8.13 Illustration for example calculation. ... 218
Figure 8.14 Steam-assisted flare (a) without steam and (b) with steam. ... 219
Figure 8.15 Smoking flare. ... 219
Figure 8.16 A couple brands of handheld radiometers. ... 220
Figure 8.17 The major components that make up a flare radiometer. ... 220
Figure 8.18 A radiometer certificate of calibration. ... 221
Figure 8.19 Illustration showing a radiometer not viewing the entire flare flame. ... 222
Figure 8.20 Radiometers with different types of windows. ... 222
Figure 8.21 Transmissivity curve of zinc selenide. ... 223
Figure 8.22 Transmissivity curve of sapphire. ... 223
Figure 8.23 Reflected radiation at a wavelength of 1 × 10−6 m for zinc selenide. ... 223
Figure 8.24 The John Zink radiometer cube. ... 224
Figure 9.1 (a and b) Ratio of specific heat (k) for various pure-component gases at different temperatures. ...232
Figure 9.2 The pitch drop experiment is a long-term experiment, which measures the flow of a piece of pitch through a funnel ... 233
Figure 9.3 Dynamic viscosity as a function of temperature for various fluids. ... 235
Figure 9.4 Temperature versus viscosity for various hydrocarbons ... 236
xvi List of Figures
Figure 9.5 Viscosity of mid-continent oils ... 237
Figure 9.6 Osborn Reynold’s experimental apparatus used to study the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. ... 238
Figure 9.7 Smoke rising from a soldering iron. ... 238
Figure 9.8 Photograph showing examples of a (a) laminar and (b) turbulent flame. ... 239
Figure 9.9 Various sizes of Pitot-static tubes. ... 239
Figure 9.10 The simple Pitot tube illustrating the difference between the static, velocity, and total pressure. ... 240
Figure 9.11 Illustration showing measurements of static, velocity, and total pressure inside a pipe ... 240
Figure 9.12 Illustration of the Pitot-static tube. ... 240
Figure 9.13 Photograph of the Pitot-static tube. ... 241
Figure 9.14 Illustration showing the fluid flow pattern through a long-radius elbow. ... 242
Figure 9.15 Loss coefficients through various fittings ... 243
Figure 9.16 Well-rounded bell inlet on a premixed burner. ... 243
Figure 9.17 Moody diagram showing friction factor versus Re ... 245
Figure 9.18 Flow past a cylinder at a Reynolds number of 10,000. ... 246
Figure 9.19 Stack downwash ... 246
Figure 9.20 Steam washing down the downwind side of a stack ... 246
Figure 9.21 Flame pulled down on the outside of a flare tip due to stack downwash effect. ... 247
Figure 9.22 Flame pulled down on the outside of a flare tip due to stack downwash effect (closer view). ... 247
Figure 9.23 An upward projecting flame. ... 248
Figure 9.24 Damaged flare tip and appurtenances caused by external burning: (a) flare tip and (b) flare pilot. ... 248
Figure 9.25 Wind tunnel test showing flow past a small-scale building ... 248
Figure 9.26 Illustration showing a gas plume being pulled into the downwind side of a building. ... 248
Figure 9.27 Photograph showing recirculation pattern created between two small-scale buildings ... 248
Figure 9.28 Photographs showing a recirculation pattern created on the downwind side of a small-scale hill located inside a wind tunnel ... 249
Figure 9.29 Downwash on the backside of a volcano (Mount Mayon, Philippines) bellowing steam and ash ... 249
Figure 9.30 Illustration showing the effect of stack height on the plume downwind of a mountain. ... 249
Figure 9.31 Internal burning inside a steam-assisted flare tip. ... 249
Figure 9.32 Schlieren photographs showing airflow patterns near a cup filled with hot coffee and another filled with ice water ... 250
Figure 9.33 Illustration showing air falling into a flare tip creating internal burning. ... 250
Figure 9.34 Flow past a cavity ... 250
Figure 9.35 Illustration showing internal burning by action of wind. ... 251
Figure 9.36 A view looking inside a wind tunnel showing a small-scale model ... 251
Figure 9.37 Scale model wind tunnel test analyzing the gas plume downstream of a vent stack ... 252
List of Figures xvii
Figure 9.38 Satellite photograph showing the plume of smoke and ash from a volcano ... 252
Figure 9.39 Smoke venting from a stack and dispersing downwind ... 252
Figure 9.40 Illustration defining the plume rise of a buoyant gas vented from a stack. ... 253
Figure 9.41 (a) Vent stack with a low plume rise and (b) vent stack with high plume rise ... 253
Figure 9.42 (a) Smoke dissipating in an unstable atmosphere (high turbulence) and (b) smoke dissipating in a stable atmosphere (low turbulence) ... 254
Figure 9.43 Heavier-than-air plume vented from a stack in a stable atmosphere ... 254
Figure 9.44 Illustration showing how the heater draft typically varies inside a heater at various elevations. ... 255
Figure 9.45 Four methods air is commonly supplied in process heaters. ... 255
Figure 9.46 Illustration showing a U-tube manometer connected to the side of a natural draft heater. ... 258
Figure 9.47 U.S. standard for variation of atmospheric pressure with elevation. ... 258
Figure 9.48 Plot showing that the atmospheric pressure is approximately linear at altitudes less than about 500 ft (150 m). ... 259
Figure 9.49 Illustration showing how the pressure varies inside a stack filled with hot air. ... 259
Figure 9.50 Illustration showing how the hydrostatic pressure and draft varies inside a stack filled with hot air. ... 260
Figure 9.51 Illustration showing how the hydrostatic pressure and draft inside a stack filled with hot, warm, and cooler ambient air varies with elevation. ... 260
Figure 9.52 Illustration showing how the hydrostatic pressure and draft varies with stack height. ... 261
Figure 9.53 Example problem illustrating effects of temperature and height on draft. ... 261
Figure 9.54 Illustration showing the hydrostatic pressure and draft profile at various elevations inside a stack filled with hot air... 262
Figure 9.55 Illustration showing how the heater pressure profile changes as the stack damper is closed and the burner damper opened. ... 263
Figure 9.56 Illustration showing the pressure and draft profile for a typical natural draft heater. ... 264
Figure 9.57 Positive draft inside a heater forcing flame out through the burner intake. ... 264
Figure 9.58 (a) Refractory brick dislodged from the heater wall due to warping of the heater casing. (b) Large chunk of refractory that has fallen from the heater wall into the throat of a burner. ... 265
Figure 9.59 (a) Coke buildup on a burner tip caused by low draft through the burner. (b) Long flame impinging on process tubes caused by low draft at the burner elevation. ... 265
Figure 9.60 A process tube penetrating the convection section of a heater. ... 265
Figure 9.61 Sight ports on a heater left open allowing tramp air to enter. ... 266
Figure 9.62 Access door on a heater not properly sealed allowing tramp air to enter. ... 266
Figure 9.63 Illustration showing the effects of closing the burner and stack damper on draft and excess O2. ... 267
Figure 9.64 Results showing the draft profile for various burner and stack damper settings operating at a constant burner heat release and heater O2. ... 267
Figure 9.65 Schematic of a heater used in the SMR industry for hydrogen production. ... 268
Figure 9.66 Example of a typical draft profile inside a down-fired heater. ... 268
xviii List of Figures
Figure 9.67 Illustration comparing the pressure inside of a down-fired heater and the pressure inside
a vacuum cleaner hose. ... 269
Figure 9.68 Illustration showing inclined manometers essentially expand the scale of a U-tube manometer by orienting it at an angle. ... 270
Figure 9.69 Inclined manometer typically used to measure heater draft. ... 270
Figure 9.70 Inclined manometer reading 0.2 and 0 in. of WC. ... 271
Figure 9.71 (a) Dial pressure gauge reading 0.2 in. WC and (b) electronic pressure transmitter used to measure heater draft. ... 271
Figure 9.72 Illustration used in example problem to demonstrate how much the draft varies with elevation inside a heater. ... 272
Figure 9.73 Plot showing how the draft per foot of heater height varies with flue gas temperature for two different ambient conditions. ... 272
Figure 9.74 Illustration showing ways the wind can impact heater draft levels. ... 273
Figure 9.75 Data trends showing wind effects on heater draft and excess O2 at high- and low-wind speeds over a 10-min period. ...274
Figure 9.76 (a–c) Illustrations showing burner designs with various air intake configurations. ...274
Figure 9.77 Experimental data showing effects of a crosswind past a burner intake on excess O2. ... 275
Figure 9.78 Illustration showing the path of combustion air as it passes through a burner. ... 275
Figure 9.79 A typical air-side capacity curve for a natural draft burner. ... 276
Figure 9.80 Example of a fuel capacity curve. ... 278
Figure 9.81 Graph showing how the fuel capacity curve varies in the subsonic and sonic flow regimes. ... 279
Figure 9.82 Photographs of gas exiting a nozzle at sonic and subsonic flow conditions... 280
Figure 9.83 Example of a fuel capacity curve for a particular burner firing several fuels. ... 281
Figure 9.84 Burner tips commonly used in the burner industry ... 281
Figure 9.85 Illustration showing four nozzles having the same port area but with different internal designs ... 282
Figure 9.86 Photographs of a PSA gas burner showing rounded port inlets caused by corrosion from metal dusting. ... 283
Figure 9.87 Illustration showing a several important factors that influence the flow rate through nozzles. ... 283
Figure 9.88 Example showing how the orifice discharge coefficient affects the fuel pressure of a burner operating at a constant HR ... 284
Figure 9.89 Fuel ports plugged with pipe scale and dirt. ... 284
Figure 9.90 Fuel ports plugged with mortar. ... 284
Figure 9.91 Flame patterns (a) before and (b) after cleaning coke from fuel ports. ... 285
Figure 9.92 Coke buildup in the main body of the fuel nozzle. ... 285
Figure 9.93 Illustration showing partial blockage near the outlet of a fuel port. ... 285
Figure 9.94 Comparing a burner (a) without and (b) with partially plugged primary fuel tips. ... 286
Figure 9.95 Example showing the effects of fuel port blockage on the fuel capacity curves. ... 287
Figure 9.96 Burner tip with coking on the inside. ... 287
Figure 9.97 Fuel tips partially plugged upstream of the ports. ... 288
List of Figures xix
Figure 9.98 Photograph of a gas exiting a nozzle ... 289
Figure 9.99 Mixing downstream of a free jet... 289
Figure 9.100 General structure of a turbulent free jet ... 290
Figure 9.101 Illustration showing a simple version of an eductor. ... 291
Figure 9.102 The basic components of an eductor system. ... 292
Figure 9.103 Flow path of secondary gas entrained into an eductor designed with a well-rounded bell inlet ... 292
Figure 9.104 Eductor tubes on a steam-assisted flare. ... 293
Figure 9.105 Eductor system on a flare pilot. ... 293
Figure 9.106 Eductor systems on pre-mixed wall-fired burners. ... 293
Figure 9.107 Eductor systems on premixed burners and pilots. ... 294
Figure 9.108 A general representation of how the pressure of the primary jet influences the entrainment performance of an eductor system. ... 294
Figure 9.109 A Venturi inlet on a premixed burner pilot covered with heavy fuel oil. ... 294
Figure 9.110 Illustration showing a premixed burner flashing back. ... 295
Figure 9.111 Schlieren photograph showing a turbulent flame front downstream of a premixed burner... 295
Figure 9.112 Illustration that demonstrates flame propagation. ... 296
Figure 9.113 Premix radiant-wall burner (a) tip and (b) firing in a heater. ... 296
Figure 9.114 Flashback of a premixed radiant wall burner with the flame stabilized inside the burner tip. ...297
Figure 9.115 Flashback of a premixed radiant wall burner with the flame stabilized inside the venturi (glowing red from heat). ... 297
Figure 9.116 Premixed radiant wall burner tip damaged from flashback. ... 297
Figure 9.117 Laminar flame speed of several fuel components. ... 297
Figure 9.118 (a) Twenty-two birthday candles arranged in 8 in. (20 cm) diameter circle. (b) Twenty-two birthday candles arranged in 2 in. (5 cm) diameter circle. ... 298
Figure 9.119 Burners firing in a vertical-cylindrical (VC) heater showing no signs of flame–flame interactions. ... 299
Figure 9.120 Burners arranged in a tight circle causing flames to collapse toward the center of the burner circle. ... 299
Figure 9.121 Two steam jets starting out parallel and being attracted to each other due to the low-pressure zone ... 299
Figure 9.122 Red smoke pulled into the low-pressure zone created on the back side of an airplane wing ... 300
Figure 9.123 Illustration showing the flow pattern and static pressure along the centerline between two unventilated (bounded by a lower wall) parallel flowing jets. ... 300
Figure 9.124 Flames impinging on process tubes in radiant section. ... 300
Figure 9.125 Flame impinging on process tubes in convection section. ... 301
Figure 9.126 Ruptured process tube caused by prolonged flame impingement. ... 301
Figure 9.127 (a) Candle flame held next to a piece of glass. (b) Soot particle... 301
Figure 9.128 Burners arranged in a tight circle causing flames to collapse toward the center. ... 302
xx List of Figures
Figure 9.129 Diffusion burners arranged in a straight line. ... 303
Figure 9.130 Loss coefficients used for estimating the mass flow rate of tramp air flowing through an open heater sight port. ... 304
Figure 9.131 Illustration of air leaking into a flare system filled with methane. ... 305
Figure 10.1 Liquid disintegration of a cylindrical jet caused by wave formations on liquid surface. ...311
Figure 10.2 A hollow-cone swirl spray with high viscosity liquid (ν =6mm /s2 ) ... 313
Figure 10.3 John Zink Spray Laboratory equipped with a PDPA. ... 315
Figure 10.4 Spray angle relative to a stable oil flame ... 315
Figure 10.5 A gun with a 90° machine angle, its spray angle actually is about 30°. ... 315
Figure 10.6 Patternator to collect water sprayed out of an oil gun. ... 315
Figure 10.7 Patternation measurements for a gun shown in Figure 10.5. ...316
Figure 10.8 Simplex swirl atomizer. ...316
Figure 10.9 Simplex swirl atomizer with return flow. ... 317
Figure 10.10 John Zink EA oil gun. ... 317
Figure 10.11 John Zink MEA gun. ... 317
Figure 10.12 John Zink High Efficiency Residual Oil (HERO) gun.. ...318
Figure 10.13 Y-jet atomization principle. ...318
Figure 10.14 WDH waste aqueous gun design with one liquid exit port surrounded with eight atomizing ports. ...318
Figure 10.15 Patternation comparison for HERO and WDH guns. ... 319
Figure 10.16 Coen elliptical cap slots for low-NOx. ... 319
Figure 10.17 Droplet size measurements of the MEA oil gun at different air pressures. ... 319
Figure 10.18 Droplet size measurements of the MEA oil gun at similar air–water differential pressures. ... 320
Figure 10.19 Droplet size measurements of MEA oil gun at the same air–water differential pressure but different mass ratios. ... 320
Figure 10.20 Droplet size comparison measured by PDPA for different oil gun designs. ... 320
Figure 10.21 Steam consumption for different oil gun designs. ... 321
Figure 10.22 Steam consumption curve for a constant steam–oil differential pressure oil gun. ... 321
Figure 10.23 A typical oil gun capacity curve showing oil gun turndown ratio. ... 321
Figure 10.24 Comparison of NOx emissions for the HERO and MEA oil guns. ... 322
Figure 10.25 Diagram of Y-jet. ... 323
Figure 11.1 Illustration of geometric similarity. ... 328
Figure 11.2 Typical relationship of Eu = f(Re). ... 330
Figure 11.3 Velocity measurement using a Pitot tube and manometer. ... 331
Figure 11.4 Airflow/helium bubble analog flow visualization. ... 332
Figure 11.5 Illustration of mixing. ... 332
Figure 11.6 Cutaway view of the burner to be installed on the prototype. ... 333
Figure 11.7 Scale physical model of the combustion air system. ... 333
List of Figures xxi
Figure 11.8 Burner no. 1 exit air velocity—Baseline. ... 335 Figure 11.9 Burner no. 1 exit air velocity—After modifications. ... 335 Figure 11.10 Burner no. 2 exit air velocity—Baseline. ... 335 Figure 11.11 Burner no. 2 exit air velocity—After modifications. ... 335 Figure 11.12 Burner no. 1 peripheral velocity distribution. ... 336 Figure 11.13 Burner no. 2 peripheral velocity distribution. ... 337 Figure 12.1 Historical (1980–2010) world energy consumption ... 340 Figure 12.2 2010 World energy consumption ... 340 Figure 12.3 U.S. energy consumption by industry sector ... 341 Figure 12.4 2010 Energy flow by source and end use in the United States ... 341 Figure 12.5 Sankey diagram for the energy flows into and out of a furnace. ... 342 Figure 12.6 Available heat lost due to increased excess O2 as a function of the flue gas exit temperature
for methane as the fuel... 342 Figure 12.7 Available heat lost due to increased excess O2 as a function of the fuel for a fixed flue gas exit
temperature (400°F). ... 342 Figure 12.8 Ratio of NOx formed at a given excess O2 level compared to the amount of NOx formed
at 1% excess O2... 343 Figure 12.9 Example demonstrating how variations in ambient temperature and humidity can result
in dramatic changes in CO emissions ... 343 Figure 12.10 Cabin-style process heater. ... 344 Figure 12.11 Process burners in a cabin heater. ... 344 Figure 12.12 Air leak around a tube penetration in the convection section. ... 346 Figure 12.13 Open sight port in the floor of a process heater. ... 346 Figure 12.14 Poorly sealed sight port on the side of a process heater. ... 346 Figure 12.15 Example of a convection section removed so that tubes can be cleaned. ... 346 Figure 12.16 Air infiltration as a function of heater draft. ... 347 Figure 12.17 Typical draft profile in a process heater (ΔP = pressure drop). ... 348 Figure 12.18 End wall photo of an operating process heater. ... 348 Figure 12.19 Smoke bomb test to find leaks in a heater. ... 349 Figure 12.20 Thermal image showing a partially open explosion door. ... 349 Figure 12.21 Plugged convection section tubes. ... 350 Figure 12.22 Sight port refractory plug seal ... 350 Figure 12.23 Sight port designed to reduce air leaks and protect operators against hot furnace flue gases,
high radiant heat, and positive pressure surges in the heater. ... 351 Figure 12.24 Engineered tube seals ... 351 Figure 13.1 Investigation of an isothermal flow field. ... 354 Figure 13.2 Original topographic data. ... 354 Figure 13.3 Representation of topographical data in a CFD model (blue showing lower elevation,
red showing higher elevation). ... 354
xxii List of Figures
Figure 13.4 Close-up view of a burner in a test furnace. ... 355 Figure 13.5 Representation of a process burner, colored by temperature (blue showing low temperatures,
red high temperatures). ... 355 Figure 13.6 Point measurement of a scalar in a turbulent flow. ... 357 Figure 13.7 Plot of the β-function for several values of Z and Z″. ... 367 Figure 13.8 Representation of a luminous flame utilizing a soot model. ... 371 Figure 13.9 Discretized geometry of a typical process burner. ... 372 Figure 13.10 Discretized geometry of a typical boiler burner. ... 372 Figure 13.11 Close-up view of primary and secondary tips. ... 373 Figure 13.12 Rendered view inside an ethylene cracker showing flow patterns near the premixed radiant
wall burners ...374 Figure 13.13 Illustration of a flame envelope defined as an isocontour of 2500 ppm CO. ... 375 Figure 13.14 Illustration of combustion products indicating poor mixing between fuel and oxidizer. ... 375 Figure 13.15 Smaller combustion product envelopes indicate improved mixing between oxidizer and fuel. ...375 Figure 13.16 CFD model of two burners. ... 376 Figure 13.17 CFD simulation optimizes burner performance leading to uniform heat flux on process tubes. ...376 Figure 13.18 Improved flame pattern maximizes burner performance. ... 376 Figure 13.19 Combining John Zink’s (a) physical and (b) CFD simulation capabilities allows them to
provide comprehensive solutions for their customers. ... 377 Figure 13.20 (a) Before—testing reveals a wide flame with an unacceptable appearance. CFD calculations
indicate flame spreading out above the burner tile. (b) After—Design modifications were
developed using CFD simulation. ... 377 Figure 14.1 Number of people (in millions) living in counties with air quality concentrations above the level
of the primary (health-based) National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in 2008 ... 382 Figure 14.2 Comparison of growth measures (gross domestic product, vehicle miles traveled,
population, and energy consumption) and emissions (CO2 and aggregate emissions) from
1970 to 2010 in the United States ... 383 Figure 14.3 Distribution of air pollution emissions by pollutant type and source category ... 383 Figure 14.4 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of equivalence ratio for air/fuel flames. ... 388 Figure 14.5 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of gas temperature for stoichiometric air/fuel
flames. ... 388 Figure 14.6 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of air preheat temperature for stoichiometric
air/fuel flames. ... 389 Figure 14.7 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of fuel preheat temperature for a stoichiometric
air/CH4 flame. ... 389 Figure 14.8 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of fuel composition (CH4/H2) for a stoichiometric
air/fuel flame. ... 390 Figure 14.9 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of fuel composition (CH4/N2) for a stoichiometric
air/fuel flame. ... 390 Figure 14.10 Bacharach smoke tester included a hand pump, filter papers, and spot scale sheet. ... 392 Figure 14.11 Particulate sampling train. ... 393
xxiii List of Figures
Figure 14.12 Sampling at different isokinetic variations. ... 394 Figure 14.13 Minimum number of traverse points for particulate traverses. ... 395 Figure 14.14 Type S pitot tube. ... 396 Figure 14.15 BERL experimental facility. ... 400 Figure 14.16 CSS. ... 400 Figure 14.17 CDFB. ... 401 Figure 14.18 Low NOx diffusion flame burner (LDFB). ... 401 Figure 14.19 CDFB total hydrocarbon emissions versus heating value of HC fuel mixture. ... 402 Figure 14.20 CDFB total hydrocarbon emissions versus combustion zone stoichiometry. ... 402 Figure 14.21 CDFB total hydrocarbon emissions versus propylene and ethylene spikes. ... 402 Figure 14.22 CDFB total hydrocarbon emissions versus hydrogen content of HC fuel mixture. ... 402 Figure 14.23 CDFB total PAH at stack outlet. ... 403 Figure 14.24 CDFB total PAH and benzo(a)pyrene at furnace outlet compared to stack outlet. ... 404 Figure 14.25 Lagrangian jet model predictions. ... 405 Figure 14.26 CDFB photoionization current (pA) versus theoretical air (%). ... 406 Figure 14.27 Range and average of emissions at the stack outlet for the CDFB. ... 407 Figure 14.28 Range of measurements of HAPs at the stack outlet for the CDFB. ... 408 Figure 14.29 Emissions for refinery fuel gas (16% H2, propane, natural gas) for the CDFB. ... 408 Figure 14.30 Range of emissions for natural gas and refinery fuel gas for the CDFB and the ultralow NOx
diffusion burner. ... 409 Figure 14.31 Emission factor comparison for low NOx burner and conventional burner. ... 409 Figure 14.32 Total PAH emissions 4 rings and greater versus stoichiometric ratio. ... 410 Figure 14.33 Benzene and PAH emissions versus stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB. ... 410 Figure 14.34 CO and PAH emissions versus stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB. ...411 Figure 14.35 HC and PAH emissions versus stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB. ...411 Figure 14.36 HC, aldehyde, VOC, and PAH emissions versus stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB. ... 412 Figure 14.37 Total heavy VOC emissions vs. stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB. ... 412 Figure 14.38 Typical process heater, petroleum refinery emissions factors... 413 Figure 15.1 Schematic of NO exiting a stack and combining with O2 to form NO2. ... 418 Figure 15.2 Schematic of acid rain. ... 419 Figure 15.3 Acid rain deterioration examples. ... 419 Figure 15.4 Schematic of smog formation. ... 420 Figure 15.5 NOx emissions in the United States between 1970 and 1999 based on the process ... 420 Figure 15.6 Schematic of fuel NOx formation pathways. ... 422 Figure 15.7 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of equivalence ratio for air/fuel flames. ... 423 Figure 15.8 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of gas temperature for stoichiometric air/fuel
flames. ... 424
xxiv List of Figures
Figure 15.9 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of air preheat temperature for stoichiometric
air/fuel flames. ... 424 Figure 15.10 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of fuel preheat temperature for a stoichiometric
air/CH4 flame. ... 425 Figure 15.11 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of fuel composition (CH4/H2) for a stoichiometric
air/fuel flame. ... 425 Figure 15.12 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of fuel composition (CH4/N2) for a stoichiometric
air/fuel flame. ... 426 Figure 15.13 Conversion ratio of fuel-bound nitrogen to NO2 of various nitrogen-containing fuels as a
function of fuel-nitrogen content ... 426 Figure 15.14 Conversion rate of fuel-bound nitrogen to NOx for two different oil-fired burners. ... 427 Figure 15.15 Relative NOx versus air/fuel ratio for premix and diffusion flames. ... 427 Figure 15.16 National NO2 ambient air quality trends ... 428 Figure 15.17 Sampling system schematic as recommended by the U.S. EPA. ... 430 Figure 15.18 Schematic of four general strategies for reducing NOx emissions. ... 431 Figure 15.19 Example of a staged fuel burner ... 435 Figure 15.20 Example of a staged air burner (Hamworthy DFR burner). ... 435 Figure 15.21 Schematic of FuGR. ... 436 Figure 15.22 Example of a burner incorporating FuGR (John Zink Halo™ burner). ... 436 Figure 15.23 Remote stage fuel tip. ... 436 Figure 15.24 Illustration showing how the remote stage method provides lower NOx emissions. ... 437 Figure 15.25 Radiant wall burners firing (a) without remote staging, NOx = 24 ppmvd and (b) with
remote staging, NOx = 16 ppmvd... 437 Figure 15.26 Flameless combustion system. ... 440 Figure 15.27 TANGENT™ technology low NOx thermal oxidizer burner. ... 440 Figure 15.28 History of low NO burner development for (a) round flame burners and (b) radiant wall
burners, firing on gaseous fuels. ... 441 Figure 15.29 COOLstar burner. ... 442 Figure 15.30 Computational fluid dynamic modeling of the COOLstar burner ... 442 Figure 15.31 Schematic of the selective catalytic reduction process ... 444 Figure 15.32 NOx removal efficiency versus temperature for SCR ... 444 Figure 15.33 Common catalyst configuration used in SCR systems ... 445 Figure 15.34 SCR process flow diagram ... 446 Figure 15.35 Typical catalyst deactivation for an SCR as a function of operating time ... 447 Figure 15.36 Selective non-catalytic reduction system ... 447 Figure 15.37 SNCR temperature window ... 447 Figure 15.38 Effect of residence time on SNCR NOx reduction efficiency ... 448 Figure 15.39 Effect of ammonia slip on SNCR NOx reduction efficiency... 448 Figure 15.40 Catalytic cleaning NOx reduction system ... 449
List of Figures xxv
Figure 15.41 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of the fuel blend composition for H2/CH4 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 451 Figure 15.42 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of the fuel blend composition for C3H8/CH4 blends
combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 451 Figure 15.43 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of the fuel blend composition for H2/C3H8 blends
combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 451 Figure 15.44 Ternary plot of adiabatic equilibrium (a) temperature and (b) relative NO (fraction of the
maximum value) as a function of the fuel blend composition for H2/CH4/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air are at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 452 Figure 15.45 Raw gas (VYD) burner. ... 452 Figure 15.46 VYD burner closeup. ... 452 Figure 15.47 Test furnace. ... 453 Figure 15.48 Measured NOx (percent of the maximum ppmv value) as a function of the fuel blend
composition for H2/TNG blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 453 Figure 15.49 Measured NOx (percent of the maximum ppmv value) as a function of the fuel blend
composition for C3H8/TNG blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 454 Figure 15.50 Measured NOx (percent of the maximum value in both ppmv and lb/MMBtu) as a function
of the fuel blend composition for H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 455 Figure 15.51 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value in both ppmv and lb/MMBtu) as a function
of the fuel blend composition for TNG/H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air
where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure for gas tip #2. ... 456 Figure 15.52 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value in both ppmv and lb/MMBtu) as a function
of the fuel blend composition for TNG/H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air
where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure for gas tip #4. ... 456 Figure 15.53 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value in both ppmv and lb/MMBtu) as a function
of the fuel blend composition for TNG/H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air
where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure for gas tip #6. ... 457 Figure 15.54 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value) in (a) ppmv and (b) lb/MMBtu) as a
function of the fuel blend composition for TNG/H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure for a constant fuel gas pressure of 21 psig... 457 Figure 15.55 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value in ppmvd) as a function of the fuel pressure
for all 15 different TNG/H2/C3H8 blends (A through O) combusted with 15% excess air
where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 458 Figure 15.56 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value) in (a) ppmv and (b) lb/MMBtu) as a
function of the fuel blend composition, fuel gas pressure and calculated adiabatic flame temperature for TNG/H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel
and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure. ... 458 Figure 15.57 Effects of firebox temperature on NOx ... 459 Figure 15.58 Velocity thermocouple (suction pyrometer) ... 460
xxvi List of Figures
Figure 15.59 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for various types of diffusion burners firing NG at 3%
excess O2 ... 461 Figure 15.60 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for various types of diffusion burners firing NG at
various excess O2 levels ... 462 Figure 15.61 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for various types of diffusion burners firing NG at 3%
excess O2 and various air preheat temperatures ... 462 Figure 15.62 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for various types of partially premixed burners firing
NG at 3% excess O2 ... 463 Figure 15.63 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for diffusion and partially premixed low NOx burners
firing on NG at 3% excess O2 ... 463 Figure 15.64 Schematic showing the effect of chromium in Fe–Cr allows an oxide scale structure based
on isothermal oxidation studies at 1000°C (1800°F) ... 465 Figure 15.65 A plot showing predicted NO concentration as a function of time for various exhaust gas
temperatures ... 465 Figure 15.66 Schematic showing test furnace and sample probe locations ... 467 Figure 15.67 (a) NO emissions at locations before and in the middle of the convection section at various
depths and (b) top surface is in middle of convection section, bottom surface before
convection section ... 468 Figure 15.68 Illustration showing theorized flow pattern within test furnace ... 468 Figure 15.69 (a) NOx (NO + NO2) at locations before and in the middle of the convection section at
various depths and (b) top surface is in middle of convection section, bottom surface before convection section ... 469 Figure 15.70 (a) NOx (NO + NO2) at various locations in the upper 10′ (3 m) of the radiant section of the
field test furnace and (b) NO and NO2 at various locations in the upper 10′ (3.0 m) of the
radiant section of the field test furnace ... 469 Figure 15.71 Schematic showing the layout of a typical reforming furnace ... 470 Figure 15.72 Test furnace and MK-II™ burner ... 471 Figure 15.73 Schematic of the MK-II™ burner ... 471 Figure 15.74 Effects of furnace temperature on NOx emissions ... 471 Figure 15.75 Effects of combustion air temperature on NOx emissions at various turndown conditions ... 472 Figure 15.76 Effects of furnace O2 concentration (excess air) on NOx emissions at various combustion air
temperatures ... 472 Figure 15.77 Photographs of (a) MK-II™, (b) low-NOx, and (c) conventional burner technologies ... 473 Figure 15.78 Comparison of NOx emissions for the conventional, low-NOx and MK-II™ burner
technologies ... 473 Figure 15.79 Effects of percent PSA gas duty on flame appearance firing the MK-II™ burner. ... 473 Figure 15.80 Effects of PSA gas composition on flame appearance firing the MK-II™ burner at a constant
heat release ...474 Figure 16.1 Community located close to an industrial plant ... 480 Figure 16.2 Tree falling in the forest ... 481 Figure 16.3 Pressure peaks and troughs ... 482 Figure 16.4 Cross-section of the human ear. ... 482
