1 The section on basic theories of the structure of knowledge - theory lectures - includes lectures 1 to 6. 2 The section on personal sources of knowledge - personal resources lectures - includes lectures 6 to 16.
THE IMPERSONAL STRATEGY
In fact, there has now been a great deal of evidence from social psychology regarding people's ability to predict their future happiness on the basis of their imagined future experiences. Social psychologists have amassed a great deal of evidence that the fact is that we are very poor affective forecasters when we rely on our imagined future experiences.
QUIZ
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2 LECTURE 2
THE CONNECTION BETWEEN KNOWLEDGE AND TRUE BELIEF
From the preschool years, however—in that crucial transition from three to six years that Wimmer and Perner also examine—children begin to look more for evidence of accuracy and trustworthiness when deciding who to trust: Was the person in a good position to observe the event he or she is reporting on. Use the person names for objects I am familiar with in the way I expect them to.
INEXISTENCE AND INACCESSIBILITY ARGUMENTS
The second argument also begins with the idea that we only ever have access to information from our own subjective impressions, but ends with the claim that we will never know the objective truth. Let's change the conclusion of this argument a bit by making it so that we will never grasp the objective truth.
ARGUMENT FOR THE IRRELEVANCE OF TRUTH
According to Josef Perner and Heinz Wimmer, most three to four year olds already have a well-developed theory of mind. The false persuasion task of Heinz Wimmer and Josef Perner provides us with evidence against Richard Rorty's argument that truth is irrelevant.
3 LECTURE 3
THE EVIL DEMON ARGUMENT
This is the origin of Descartes' famous statement Cogito ergo sum: "I think, therefore I am." Even if the demon can deceive you about the content of your beliefs, it cannot deceive you about the fact that it is now making you doubt. Using Descartes' new method, we have now definitively established the fact of our own existence on the firmest of all possible foundations.
INTERNALISM AND DUALISM
According to Descartes, all evidence for knowledge must be internal to the mind. 4 Which of the following provides counterexamples to Descartes' claim that we have certain knowledge about our ongoing visual experiences.
4 LECTURE 4
INFALLIBILISM VERSUS FALLIBILISM
Because of this mistrust, these philosophers refused to consider the structure of knowledge as a building, s. The view that the structure of knowledge should be understood in this way is known as coherence theory or coherentism.
COHERENTISM
The first problem with coherence theory is that the theory requires you to have consistent beliefs in order to have knowledge. This problem is related to the fact that the only elements that coherence theory assesses are beliefs.
5 LECTURE 5
CHALLENGES FOR FOUNDATIONALISM AND COHERENTISM
PROCESS RELIABILISM
It is obvious how the process-reliability theory can answer the first challenge - the challenge of explaining the underlying relation. According to the process reliabilist, knowledge is true belief formed on the basis of a reliable process, a process that reliably yields true beliefs.
EXTERNALIST VERSUS INTERNALIST THEORIES
The transitional rules are the rules that determine what effect those types of entries and number amounts have on the tax you owe, and the output of the process is your tax due or tax refund. Process fidelity is externalistic, both because it allows at least some of the basis of your beliefs to include states outside of your mind, and because it allows you to be unable, through pure reflection alone, to recognize why the true basis for your beliefs is in fact a legitimate source of justification.
6 LECTURE 6
Inerrancy says that if you believe that your mind contains mental state M, then your mind contains mental state M.
TRANSPARENCY VERSUS INFALLIBILITY
When you are justified on the basis of experience, it is the most obvious thing in the world. But how much justification does your experience provide you for the belief that you have that experience.
THE TRANSPARENCY CLAIM
According to the transparency claim that applies to occurring beliefs, you know that if you currently believe something, then you know that you believe it. So if you currently know that you believe something, then you know that you believe that you believe it - and so on.
THE INFALLIBILITY CLAIM
Suppose that because the second color is so close to the first color, it is indistinguishable from the first color. Similarly, because the second color is very close to the third color, it is also indistinguishable from the third color.
7 LECTURE 7
Even when all our senses are intact and our brains function normally, we have no direct access to the physical world. It may feel like we have direct access, but this is an illusion created by our brain.
INDIRECT PERCEPTUAL REALISM
The second problem with indirect perceptual realism is that it sees the role of the senses as being able to give us phenomenal sensory experiences. Rather, the role of the senses is to provide us with information about the world around us.
SENSE PERCEPTION AND KNOWLEDGE
There seems to be at least some evidence for top-down processing of sensory information in the brain. One problem is that top-down theories cannot tell the whole story of sensory perception.
8 LECTURE 8
EXPERIENCE-BASED INTERNALIST FOUNDATIONALISM
As explained in the previous lecture, there is in fact a great deal of computation that takes place at the early stages of perception. According to the standard experience-based foundation view, our experiences are the basis of our inferences about the objects in the world that cause those experiences, and those inferences then form our knowledge about the world.
NAIVE FOUNDATIONALISM
EXTERNALISM
S. had seen a chicken claw with his left brain, and his right hand chose a picture of a chicken
This suggested to Gazzaniga that there is a special mechanism in the brain - which he calls the interpreter -. Patrick Cavanagh's work on the physics of shadows provides evidence for the claim that the inferences on which our sense knowledge is based are the result of the kind of personal processes that the experiential internalist foundationalist suggests.
9 LECTURE 9
TYPES OF MEMORY
Interestingly, the three types of long-term memory appear to be different, as you can have one type without having any of the other two. One of the phenomena often associated with aphantasia is a severely deficient autobiographical memory, which is essentially a lack.
EPISODIC MEMORY
For Russell, the difference between our states of memory and mere imagination lies solely in the fact that, in the case of memories, we believe them to be about the past. Reid first notes that the common sense view of memory is that it is an immediate knowledge of something that occurred in the past.
THE CAUSAL THEORY OF MEMORY
The problem is that Russell's view actually relies on the traditional view of memory that he claims to reject. 6. Which view of memory suggests that it relies on a reliably stable, ongoing brain-based connection to a past object or event.
10 LECTURE 10
COHERENTISM AND MEMORY
In the 2010 article "Why Science Tells Us Not to Rely on Eyewitness Accounts" in Scientific American Mind, psychology professors Hal Arkowitz and Scott Lilienfeld review some of the literature on episodic memory, particularly as it relates to eyewitness testimony. The problem for the joiner is that if you make knowledge dependent on being able to spin a good yarn, then sometimes the best or most believable yarns are not actually true.
FOUNDATIONALISM AND MEMORY
Consider a case where you see an event, but at the time have reason to doubt that what you are seeing is real. Perhaps unsurprisingly, we are bad at remembering the specific source of information, such as whether we read something in The New York Times versus The Wall Street Journal.
EXTERNALISM AND MEMORY
1 The fact that episodic memory works more like reconstructing a picture from stored pieces would seem to provide some support for which of the following. 4 Which of the following appears to pose a problem for the naïve internalist foundationalist theory.
11 LECTURE 11
USE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AS A COGNITIVE AID
Clark and Chalmers want to emphasize that Inga's brain-based belief and Otto's notebook-based belief work in the same way in explaining their actions. C lark and Chalmers believe that there are no significant differences between Inga's brain-based belief and Otto's notebook-based belief.
EXTERNALISM AND THE EXTENDED MIND
Despite the similarities between Inga's normal, brain-based belief and Otto's atypical, notebook-based belief, Andy Clark and David Chalmers ultimately think that Otto's belief is too different from Inga's to be considered a true case of the extended sense to count. The results of Betsy Sparrow, Jenny Liu and Daniel Wegner suggest that Andy Clark and David Chalmers' thesis of the extended mind is similar to the psychological phenomenon of transactive memory.
12 LECTURE 12
RATIONALISTS VERSUS EMPIRICISTS
KANT’S DISTINCTIONS
This kind of a priori knowledge also includes analytic claims - claims that you can know to be true simply by the words they contain. Kant thought there was knowledge that we have independently of experience and that is not simply implied by the meaning of the words we use to describe that knowledge.
A PRIORI SYNTHETIC TRUTHS
QUIZ
13 LECTURE 13
DEDUCTION VERSUS INDUCTION
This fact about inductive arguments allows us to appreciate a key aspect of them that distinguishes them from deductive arguments: inductive arguments can involve weaker or. The trade-off for the fact that inductive arguments cannot provide their conclusions is that inductive arguments can include conclusions that provide information not contained in the premises.
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
Logical "or" is also used to join two statements, but in the case of "or", the resulting statement is true as long as at least one of the components is true. Which of the following should you examine to know if the rule is true?
14 LECTURE 14
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
It's not actually information you've ever just perceived, even though it's based on information you've perceived -. And then, using the new information you've derived, induction allows you to potentially predict future observations or to manipulate future events.
HUME’S INDUCTIVE CHALLENGE
1 For someone to have reason to believe any factual claim about the unobserved, he or she must first have reason to believe that the uniformity principle is true. 5 Because the uniformity principle is in itself a matter-of-fact claim about the unobserved, it means that to have reason.
15 LECTURE 15
HEMPEL’S PARADOX
The example of a black crow confirms the claim that all crows are black, and it also provides reason to reject the claim that all crows are non-black. However, the case of a non-black non-crow is compatible with both the claim that all crows are black and with the claim that all crows are non-black.
GOODMAN’S PROBLEM
These are the predicates that ignore other predicates that conflict with them without being overridden themselves. This is the strategy pursued by a number of contemporary philosophers, suggesting that the solution to Goodman's horror problem is just a special application of a rule of inference known as Bayes' theorem, named after the Reverend Thomas Bayes, who formulated the statement.
16 LECTURE 16
PERFORMATIVE VERSUS ACQUAINTANCE KNOW-HOW
To distinguish Carl's know-how from Steve's, we can say that Carl has performative know-how. It seems plausible to explain know-how like Steve's in terms of a reliable ability to recognize.
KNOWLEDGE-HOW VERSUS KNOWLEDGE-THAT
But the whole point of Stanley and Williamson's reading of Ryle's argument requires that the actions we are seeing are intentional actions. If Stanley and Williamson are reading Ryle correctly, then it appears that Ryle's argument rests on a fallacy.
UNDERSTANDING RYLE’S ARGUMENT
In fact, it appears to employ only claims that a defender of the intellectualist legend would accept. According to Jason Stanley and Timothy Williamson, the root of the problem with Gilbert Ryle's argument against the equivalence of knowing-how and knowledge is that Ryle mischaracterizes the nature of intentional action.
17 LECTURE 17
NON-PRESUMPTIVISM
In other words, they reject Hume's requirement that you cannot know something based on evidence unless you rehearse positive reasons for accepting that evidence. Most externalist theories of evidentiary knowledge think that the phrase "your acceptance of the evidence involves a reliable method".
PRESUMPTIVISM
1 David Hume's insistence that you can only have knowledge through evidence if you support your belief in that evidence by an argument that the evidence is accurate is an example of which of the following. 3 If Thomas Reid thought that you can have knowledge by testimony only if you rely on—.
18 LECTURE 18
MONITORING FOR SINCERITY AND DECEPTIVENESS
Even people whose careers—if not their lives—depend on their ability to detect deception are generally not particularly reliable. Although partners were actually more confident in their ability to detect deception, they were actually worse at detecting deception in their partners than in others.
MONITORING FOR COMPETENCE
In all groups, an overwhelming majority of participants answered positively to the following questions about. The way Cooper and his colleagues figured this out was that trial jurors actually preferred to use the easier one.
19 LECTURE 19
DUNBAR’S NUMBER
Dunbar proposed that we each have social groups of varying sizes that are related to each other by a precise formula that can be approximated by the rule of three. If we consider people with whom we have more distant connections, we each have about 500 acquaintances and up to about 1,500 people we recognize by face.
WEAK TIES
NETWORK EFFECTS
The social groups we are embedded in are often too large and complex to track the individual reliability of each of the members of those social groups. But it is not possible for you to keep track of the casual acquaintances of your casual acquaintances.
20 LECTURE 20
SOCIAL EXTERNALISM
SOCIALLY DISTRIBUTED COGNITIVE PROCESSES
The members of this second section had at their disposal certain means of checking these calculations without having to repeat or even review the whole work done by the third section. Third Division. – The members of this section, varying in number from sixty to eighty, received certain numbers from another section and, using nothing more than simple addition and subtraction, returned the completed tables to this section.
A POTENTIAL OBJECTION TO SOCIAL EXTERNALISM
Babbage saw de Prony's design as a model for future scientific investigations on a large scale and called the tables obtained by de Prony's workers "one of the most amazing monuments of arithmetical calculation that the world has yet produced." As Babbage put it, the possibility of having accomplished such a task by employing only workers equipped with the most rudimentary arithmetical skills.
CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE
According to Edwin Hutchins' study of sea-and-anchor detail, one officer constantly kept track of all tasks performed by the team involved in the positioning task. 4 Which of the following explanations explains why we cannot reformulate David Hume's inferentialist theory of testimony to apply to socially distributed cognition.
21 LECTURE 21
FACT-CHECKING ORGANIZATIONS
We have good reason to be skeptical about over-reliance on external fact-checking organizations. In other words, by bringing in outside fact-checking organizations, we are once again leaving the onus on individuals to be able to evaluate information, to evaluate the relative strength of individual experts.
MULTIPLE MARKETS
We can compare a market for ideas to the market for cars, and what we see is that—at least in the case of science—we don't have the bewildering array of qualities against which we can measure the value of an idea. In the case of science, the measure of the quality of an idea is whether it is true or likely to be true.
SOURCES YOU RELY ON
Internal fact-checking is an institution that has existed since the first newspapers and magazines. 5 External fact-checking organizations are not as useful as internal fact-checking organizations in terms of promoting well-informed media consumers because of which of the following.
22 LECTURE 22
The other challenge suggests that a person's moral concerns can influence whether he or she has knowledge.
PRAGMATIC ENCROACHMENT
If so, then a simple disclaimer on a menu may not be enough to make you feel comfortable eating at that restaurant. So if we are to block Fantl and McGrath's argument that practical interests can affect whether or not you have knowledge, we will have to block the argument by focusing on the practical condition—the claim that if you have knowledge of some fact, then it is rational to act as if this fact is true.
MORAL ENCROACHMENT
Think back to the discussion of the menu's disclaimer that the kitchen at the restaurant you're eating at is peanut-free. 1 Which of the following is not an assumption of Jeremy Fantl and Matthew McGrath's argument that your knowledge depends on your practical interests.
23 LECTURE 23
Skepticism
THE BRAIN-IN-A-VAT SCENARIO
But if the argument is valid and if each of the steps of the argument is credible, then we must accept the conclusion. So it would seem that we should accept skepticism about the world as it is perceived by our senses.
THE EXTERNALIST RESPONSE
THE RELEVANT ALTERNATIVES VIEW
