Local Tourists’ Perceptions on City Rejuvenation, Destination Image, City Brand Identity and Intention to Recommend Johannesburg, South Africa
Puseletso Sehahabane
1, Tinashe Chuchu
1*, Eugine Tafadzwa Maziriri
21University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
2Department of Business Management, College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
Abstract
Destination marketing, as a concept, has received much attention in tourism research. This research investigates the relationship between constructs, including city rejuvenation, destination image, city brand identity, and city perceptions. The study was quantitative in nature, adopting the survey method. A unique conceptual model was developed to test proposed hypotheses based on the abovementioned constructs. Data was collected from Braamfontein, a busy business district of Johannesburg, South Africa. A total of 297 participants completed the survey, and these responses were processed in SPSS 24 and AMOS 24 for descriptive statistics and hypotheses testing, respectively. The outcome (intention to recommend) was tested against three constructs (city brand identity, destination image, and city perception. The key finding suggests that destination image has the strongest influence on the intention to recommend a destination. This implies that the most significant incentive for tourists to recommend a destination is mainly caused by the traveller's perception of the destination's image. Based on the implications of the findings, further research direction is proposed.
Keywords: City Brand Identity, City Perceptions, City Rejuvenation, Destination Image.
INTRODUCTION*
Tourism is regarded as a modern-day growth engine and is one of the largest industries globally [1]. In particular, South African tourism has been recognized as a driver of growth and development, as tourism supports one in every 12 jobs in South Africa [1]. Tourism destination branding represents the most obvious means by which destinations can distinguish themselves from the mass of commodity destinations worldwide [2] and is a powerful marketing tool because of increasing competition, product similarity, and substitutability in the tourism market [3].
Local tourism campaigns such as Sho't Left have seen the rise of destination branding in South Africa. Different provinces are branding themselves based on their main tourist attraction, be it historical, natural resources, or the social life in that province [4]. As a travel destination, South Africa is renowned for its monumental heritage sites, African wildlife, breathtaking coasts, and Johannesburg's vivacious city. South African provinces have since distinguished themselves from the other provinces by the uniqueness and authenticity of its offering to gain a competitive advantage [1].
* Correspondence Address:
Tinashe Chuchu
E-mail : [email protected] Address : University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, South Africa
Explicitly focusing on Johannesburg offers world-class infrastructure like the Gautrain, an 80-kilometer mass rapid transit railway system that links Johannesburg, Pretoria, and Ekhuruleni O. R. Tambo International Airport.
Johannesburg enjoys some of the continent's most sophisticated transport highway infrastructures, including multi-lane highways.
Johannesburg successfully hosted the opening and closing ceremonies of the World Cup in 2010 at the First National Bank Stadium, also known as Soccer City, a stadium in Johannesburg.
A previous study indicated the growing importance of unique experiences that tourists expect from their stay in a destination [5]. Due to South Africa's political past, Johannesburg offers monumental museums like the Apartheid Museum, where visitors go on a visual tour guide of what it used to be like during Apartheid from the entrance to the visuals [1,5]. In the south of Johannesburg is the iconic Soweto known for the student uprising of 1976;
also found in Soweto is the Guinness World Record Vilakazi Street, the only street in the world to have had two Noble Peace Prize recipients to have left there, namely Nelson Mandela and Bishop Tutu. Visitors have options for what packages to choose from when visiting Vilakazi Street. It could be by bus, bicycle, or foot, depending on their desired experience.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Intention to recommend and revisit a destination, however, did not investigate the respondents' attitudes regarding their willingness to recommend the destination [6].
A previous study suggested that a destination's image influences the perceived value of that destination [7]. However, they did not assess how destination image influences an intention to recommend the destination. Fyall et al. [8]
examined the relationships between joy, love, positive surprise, unpleasantness, satisfaction, and behavioral Intentions. A study by Prayag et al. [9] assessed the mediating effects of satisfaction and the relationship between emotions and behavioral intentions. This paper intends to investigate the factors that Influence the intention to recommend Johannesburg as tourist destination based on international student's perspectives.
TOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA
The tourism industry continues to play an important role in the South African economy.
According to the report in 2013, Tourism's direct GDP was R103.6 billion in 2013, rising from R93.5 billion in 2012 [10]. The industry's contribution to total GDP remained stable at 2.9% for both years. Domestic visitors contributed 57% (R124.7 billion) of total tourism spending in 2013, while international visitors contributed 43% (R94.2 billion) [10].
Furthermore, the report states that total tourism spending in 2013 was R218.9 billion, a rise of 9.7% from R199.4 billion in 2012.
International and domestic visitors have different spending habits. For every R100 spent by an international visitor in 2013, R27 was spent on non-specific products, R15 on tourism-connected products, R14 on accommodation, R12 on road transport, and R12 on air transport; and R20 was spent on other products [10].
The major expenditure items for domestic visitors, for every R100 spent, were for road transport (R29), non-specific products (R19), accommodation (R15), air transport (R14), and tourism-connected products (R10). R13 was spent on other products. In 2013, 14.3 million non-resident visitors visited South Africa, increasing from 13.1 million in 2012 to 12.1 million in 2011. Rising visitor numbers and increased spending are bound to influence industry employment. The number of persons employed in the tourism industry increased by 9,854, from 645,755 persons in 2012 to
655,609 persons in 2013. The tourism industry employs about 4.4% of all employed persons in South Africa [10].
JOHANNESBURG AS THE STUDY AREA
South Africa's tourism industry has grown exponentially in the last few years, and much of the growth has been in Johannesburg. In addition, Johannesburg is the capital of Gauteng Province and South Africa's largest and wealthiest city, making it the country's economic hub [11]. It is the country's chief industrial and financial metropolis [12]. One of the youngest of the world's major cities, Johannesburg, was founded in 1886 following the discovery of gold [12]. Central Johannesburg is the commercial and financial heart of South Africa [12]. In 2016, Johannesburg was one of the top ten largest municipalities in South Africa, with about 4,949,347 residents [13]. Since then, Johannesburg has been a well-developed city in Africa due to its networked infrastructures, business-led urban development, spatial intelligence, and environmental and social sustainability [14].
By nature, the city of Johannesburg is very divided; the demographics are very diverse due to people's migration from different provinces in South Africa and outside of the country [13].
The city of Johannesburg is the first choice of destination, the largest city or the economic hub of South Africa, and the first choice of destination goal by job seekers from other provinces in the country [13]. A study [14] state that even though migration has benefited the city of Johannesburg, the results of the people's movement have indicated significant gaps in the standards of living between the wealthy and very poor residents. Figure 1 presents a geographical map of Johannesburg.
Figure 1. Map of Johannesburg showing the 7 regions of the city. Source: Chirisa and Matamanda [15].
CONCEPTUAL MODEL AND HYPOTHESES FORMULATION
Figure 2 illustrates the conceptual model reflecting the distinct paths and connections between the constructs under investigation.
The subsequent sections will then provide the formulation of the hypotheses for the present research.
Figure 2. Conceptual Model
City Rejuvenation, City Brand Identity and Destination Image
There are several types of development and construction that can be regarded as formulas that shape the urban landscape as the formal factor for making the image of global cities [16].
The first type is the new urban centre, usually the financial and business one, with a cluster of high-rise towers and at least one landmark structure or skyscraper. It is probably the most wanted if the city has the economic condition, business space demand, and ideal land for development. The second type is the other mega-projects, usually consisting of multiple uses (commercial, residential) and can dramatically change the city. The chief developer of these projects may be the government, but it is mainly the private sector or a public-private partnership. The third type is the urban cultural facilities, including museums, galleries, theatres, stadia, and other civil and educational buildings of large scale. The fourth type is the urban infrastructure, which covers widely from the airport, central railway station, seaport, and urban metro to bridges [16].
Image is essential to a city when trying to promote itself, compete with other cities, and reach a higher status in the networks of the global economy [17]. Meanwhile, architecture is one of the key elements for building the city's image, which genuinely needs some visual and concrete factors to catch people's attention and make them believe [14]. Among the architectural elements, the urban infrastructure, by being built as architectural attracting objects in the city, can play a significant role in urban architecture and shape the city form as the spatial framework for an
urban landscape that includes the airport, central railway station, seaport, urban metro, and bridges [16].
Having some type of urban infrastructure is essential to a global city because that is the fundamental requirement for economic flows.
However, considering the city's image, it is more important to make these projects visible.
Unlike a company where this would apply to the logo, stationery, uniforms, and integrated marketing communications, this would be significant to the regional equivalents, such as infrastructure, transport options, and heritage sites, amongst other elements [17]. Brodie et al. [14] echo these sentiments, insisting that investment in the presented city brand that goes beyond the marketing communications (especially mere advertisements and slogans) will result in a favorable city brand image. One can intuitively conclude that the presented city brand rejuvenation positively influences the city's brand image. Based on the abovementioned evidence, the following hypotheses are proposed.
H1: City Rejuvenation has a positive effect on City Brand Identity
H2: City Rejuvenation has a positive effect on Destination Image
City Brand Identity, City Perception and City Rejuvenation
City rejuvenation directly impacts the city's brand image [18]. Destination image refers to an individual's mental representations of knowledge, impressions, emotional thoughts, prejudices, and overall perception of a particular place [19]. Based on this definition, a positive city perception positively affects destination image [20]. It can be concluded that both destination image and city rejuvenation positively affect City Perception.
Shani and Wang [19] state that emotions are ubiquitous in tourism, play a central role in defining memorable experiences, and are fundamental determinants of post- consumption evaluations [21]. For example, Tung and Ritchie [22], from whom recent authors draw their work, such as Brakus et al.
[23], interpret destination identity as tourists’
emotional attachment to the destination. A study by Stylidis et al. [24] also indicates that a well-established destination identity projects strong affection for tourists. This strong affection shapes the tourist perception of the city [24].
Due to the aforementioned role of image, it represents an important factor that needs to be managed for destinations. First, the perceived image should be stated, as Moilanen and Rainisto [18] mentioned, that perceived image would enable the destination to compare the perceived image with the desired, ideal image and move forward with building and to improve the desired image of the destination [25].
Therefore, creating a positive image and, consequently, a positive city perception and image management are especially significant in today's crisis and growing competition. A positive destination image and city perception can increase demand for this destination [26].
H3: City Rejuvenation has a positive effect on City Perception
H4: City Brand Identity has a positive effect on City Perception
Brand Identity, City Perception and Destination Image
Destination image refers to an individual’s mental representations of knowledge, impressions, emotional thoughts, prejudices, and overall perception of a particular place [19]. Based on this definition, a positive City perception positively affects Destination Image [20]. Destination Identity is an affective construct because its definition is consistent with the meaning of affection. For example, Biel [27] suggests that destination identity is tourists’ emotional attachment to the destination [27]. Furthermore, indicate that a well-established destination identity projects strong affection for tourists. According to Clarno and Murray [28], cognitive knowledge induces affective response. Hence, the cognitive destination image is conceived to directly affect the affection-based destination identity. Work by Palatkova [29] revealed that the perceived image of a place reflects a distinctive and emotionally attractive destination identity.
H5: City Brand Identity has a positive effect on Destination Image
H6: Destination Image has a positive effect on City Perception
Brand Identity and Intention to Recommend Destination personality brings the destination alive and intimate, forming a clear destination identity in tourists’ minds. In addition, destination personality appears to be emerging as an effective tool to differentiate the destination from its rivals [30]. The impact
of destination identity on tourists’ behavioral intentions is documented in quite a few admirable studies, and the findings are not without inconsistency. For example, Murphy et al. [30] contend that destination identity positively influences tourists’ behavioral intentions and specific intentions to recommend. Brakus et al. [23] state that destination identity is a reasonable antecedent of behavioral intentions; direct and positive links are mainly found in competence and sophistication [23]. The following hypothesis is therefore proposed.
H7: City Brand Identity has a positive effect on Intention to Recommend
Destination Image, Intention to Recommend and City Perception
Destination image plays an essential role in tourists’ destination choice processes, post- travel evaluations, and future behaviors [31,32]. A rich research model models the interrelationships between destination image, tourist satisfaction, and behavioral intentions [33,34]. However, Assaker and Hallak [35] note that previous studies examining the relationships between destination image, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions have presented contradictory findings. For example, some studies show that destination image directly influences behavioral intentions [36,37], revealing an indirect relationship via the satisfaction construct. In addition, destination image exerts both direct and indirect influence on tourists’ behavioral intentions [30].
Tourism scholars [38,39,40] have called for research on global or integrative models of destination image, satisfaction, and loyalty.
Service providers also constantly seek to provide satisfaction for customers [41].
Specifically, when modeling destination image, satisfaction, and loyalty, there is a need to include tourists’ emotional experiences.
Emotions are ubiquitous in tourism [30], play a central role in defining memorable experiences [19], and are fundamental determinants of post-consumption evaluations. Emotions are essential precursors to satisfaction through emotions where tourists perceive the value of tourist experiences and behavioral intentions [42].
Murphy et al. [30] predicts a significant positive relationship between perceived value and destination loyalty intention. If tourists’
attitudes are positive, the willingness to
execute a particular behavior is more likely to be present [42]. Therefore, it could be inferred that when tourists are optimistic about a destination, they would likely recommend it to others. In their study, Murphy et al. [30] state that revisiting intention and willingness to recommend are used as measures of destination loyalty intention. Improving these services is essential and worthwhile because, as this study shows, tourists experiencing higher satisfaction levels reveal favorable intentional behavior, that is, the willingness to return and recommend it to others. Tourism motivation shows that tourists’ perceived value contains three dimensions: scenic value, knowledge value, and social value. These dimensions can be considered the primary indicators of perceived value that positively influence tourists’ destination loyalty [30,36,38].
H8: Destination Image has a positive effect on Intention to Recommend
H9: City Perception has a positive effect on Intention to Recommend
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The sample consisted of 297 willing participants. This section presents the findings of the study, beginning with a presentation of the sample’s profile (Table 1).
Table 1. Sample Profile Gender
Male 48%
Female 49%
Prefer not to say 3%
Total 100%
Age
18-25 56%
26-35 33%
36-45 10%
Over 46 1%
Total 100%
Length of Stay in Johannesburg
Under 1 year 21.2%
1-2 years 15.2%
3-4 years 16.2%
5-6 years 28.3%
Over 7 years 19.2%
Total 100%
All the items per construct had a mean that ranged from 4.094 to 4.198. In addition, the standard deviation values ranged from 0.683 to 0.719. It was also noted that in both cases (mean and standard deviation), the values were between -2 and +2, indicating that data was fairly distributed. As for reliability, Cronbach’s
alpha (α) was above 0.6 for all the constructs, indicating robust reliability. Composite reliability (CR) values were also above 0.6, further supporting the reliability of the data. To test for the validity of the data, the average variance extracted (AVE) values were above 0.5, indicating the validity of the data. The highest shared variances (HSV) were lower than the AVE for all constructs, indicating the presence of discriminant validity. Most of the item to total values were at 0.5 or close to 0.5, indicating sufficient data reliability. These values ranged from 0.176 to 0.206.
Lastly, table 2 showed factor loadings reaching 0.5 or exceeding 0.5 in some instances, proving that the data was reliable.
The research model was run and had the following results (Table 2). All these values exceeded the recommended thresholds.
Table 2. Model Fit Measurements Model fit
criteria X2/DF GFI CFI TLI
Indicator value 1.118 0.926 0.871 0.831 Model fit
criteria IFI RFI NFI RMSEA
Indicator value 0.985 0.979 0.984 0.020 Notes: X2/df: Chi-square, GFI: Goodness of Fit Index, CFI: Comparative Fit Index, TLI: Tucker Lewis Index, IFI:
Incremental Fit Index, RFI: Relative Fit Index, NFI: Norm Fit Index, RMSEA: Random Measure of Standard Error Approximation.
HYPOTHESIS ANALYSIS
The hypotheses results are presented in Figure 3. The hypothesis testing assumes that p-values have to be lower than 0.01 to prove significance. A total of nine hypotheses are tested, all supporting the proposed relationships. Only two proposed hypotheses are not significant, as illustrated in Table 3.
The first relationship, H1, city rejuvenation and city brand identity (CBI), is both supported and significant. It is indicated by the estimate of 0.203 and the *** signifying that the p-value is less than 0.01. This result suggests that the extent to which local tourists consider their city to be well-rejuvenated, the more they would positively perceive the city’s identity. It can therefore be inferred that city rejuvenation is a welcomed idea by local tourists. However, the weak association between city rejuvenation and city brand identity implies that local tourists in Johannesburg do not feel that city rejuvenation made a major contribution to Johannesburg’s brand identity. It should be noted that this relationship ranked lowest with the local tourists [44,45].
Figure 3. Results of the Structural Model Description:
CR: City Rejuvenation, CBI: City Brand Identity, CP: City Perception, DI: Destination Image, IR: Intention to Recommend, Level of significance = p<0.01
The second hypothesis, H2, city rejuvenation (CR) and destination image (DI), is also found to be both supported and significant. It is because the estimate was 0.404, and the p-value is 0.002, falling below the threshold of 0.01 required for significance. It means that rejuvenating a city is considered to be an approach that would provide a positive image of a travel destination. The idea of rejuvenating the city of Johannesburg would make the locals appreciate their city more and make it more attractive for tourism purposes. This hypothesis is much in-line with the first. Furthermore, it can be seen that local tourists strongly connect their image of Johannesburg with the idea of rejuvenation of the city, implying that the rejuvenation will definitely impact the city [46].
The third hypothesis, H3, city rejuvenation (CR) and city perceptions (CP), is also both supported and significant. It is indicated by an estimate of 0.341 and a p-value of 0.001. This finding suggests that city perceptions are a definite result of the potential rejuvenation of
Johannesburg. It implies that improving the city's appearance would make local tourists perceive it more desirably to be an attractive place to visit. It is because of the positive effect rejuvenation would have on the locals' perceptions of the city [47].
The fourth hypothesis, H4, and the fifth hypothesis, H5, depict relationships that involve city brand identity (CBI). In both relationships, city brand identity is directly associated with the local tourist perceptions of that city and its image as a travel destination. The relationship between city brand identity and city perceptions depicted by H4 reveals a p-value lower than 0.001 and an estimate of 0.433, suggesting that these two constructs are both significantly and positively associated with each other. This finding implies that the more positive Johannesburg’s brand image is, the more positive local tourists perceive the city.
This outcome would, therefore, significantly encourage locals to engage in tourism [46].
Table 3. Hypotheses Results
Relationship Hypothesis P-Value Estimate Outcome
CR - CBI H1 *** 0.203 Supported and Significant
CR - DI H2 0.002 0.404 Supported and Significant
CR - CP H3 0.001 0.341 Supported and Significant
CBI - CP H4 *** 0.433 Supported and Significant
CBI - DI H5 0.105 0.223 Supported but Not Significant
DI - CP H6 *** 0.402 Supported and Significant
CBI - IR H7 0.02 0.611 Supported and Not Significant
DI - IR H8 *** 0.701 Supported and Significant
CP - IR H9 0.003 0.521 Supported and Significant
Notes: CR: City Rejuvenation, CBI: City Brand Identity, CP: City Perception, DI: Destination Image, IR: Intention to Recommend, Level of significance = p<0.01
In H5, it can be said that city brand identity is related to the destination image, and this is confirmed in the study with a p-value higher than 0.001 and an estimate of 0.223. The study also established that city brand identity influences the image of a destination in the eyes of tourists. This relationship possibly implies that destination image results from Johannesburg having a good brand identity but not strong enough to convince locals that city brand identity alone would influence their perceptions of the destination’s image. It is the second weakest relationship in the research compared to other hypotheses suggesting that local Johannesburg tourists do not closely associate destination image with city brand identity. Basically, local tourists did not view city brand identity and destination to be a significant association [48].
The sixth hypothesis, H6, is destination image (DI) and city perception (CP). It is evident that a relationship exists between destination image and city perception, where destination image positively influences city perception. This relationship is both supported and significant with an estimate of 0.402 and a p-value of ***, indicating that the p-value is lower than the required 0.01 to confirm significance. It means that the more positively Johannesburg is viewed as a tourist destination by the locals the more positive, the more positive the perceptions towards the city will be. It can be said that favourable perceptions of the city are a direct outcome of a destination being viewed as favourable. In other words, Johannesburg could already be viewed as an exciting attraction site by tourists prior to them confirming this assertion that they view it as attractive [49].
The follow-up hypothesis, H7, city brand identity (CBI) and intention to recommend (IR), is supported at an estimate of 0.611 but not significant as its p-value of 0.02 is greater than the 0.01 necessary for demonstrating significance. The seventh relationship reveals that local Johannesburg tourists would be willing to recommend the city to other locals even though this would not be a significant reason for recommending the city for tourism reasons. This finding also suggests that the association between Johannesburg’s brand identity and the likelihood of the city being recommended for tourism is unimportant to the local tourists. It could imply that the local tourists do not feel motivated enough or convinced enough to refer potential visitors to
the region even though they would not intentionally discourage these visits [50,51].
The eighth hypothesis, H8, is destination image (DI) and intention to recommend (IR).
This relationship is both supported and significant with an estimate of 0.701 and a p- value lower than 0.001, which suggests that the intention to recommend Johannesburg to other locals for tourism purposes is largely the result of the destination’s image. It should be noted that this is the strongest of all relationships, which means that local Johannesburg tourists closely associate Johannesburg’s image as a travel destination with the possibility of it being recommended to prospective visitors. It means that local tourists would recommend Johannesburg for its attractions based on how they view the city. It means that Johannesburg’s image as a travel destination is largely responsible for its recommendation and does not need or require the local tourists’
effort in promoting the place for future tourist activity [47,52].
Last, the ninth hypothesis, H9, city perception (CP) and intention to recommend (IR), is both supported and significant. It is because it provides an estimate of 0.521 and a p-value of 0.003, which is lower than the 0.01 necessary to confirm significance. It means that positive city perceptions lead to the willingness of local Johannesburg tourists to recommend the place to other local tourists.
Furthermore, it is established in this research that one’s preparedness to recommend a travel destination heavily depends upon the public as well as personal perceptions of that place. In this case, Johannesburg is viewed as a desirable place worthy of referrals. The following section explores the contribution and conclusion of the research [53,54].
CONTRIBUTION AND CONCLUSION
This research attempts to understand the perceptions of Johannesburg's local tourists on city rejuvenation, destination image, city brand identity, and city perceptions. It could be established that city rejuvenation and city brand identity had the weakest of all relationships. It could mean that Johannesburg's local tourists should have viewed city rejuvenation as a robust antecedent of city brand identity. On the other hand, the most robust relationship in that study was of destination image and intention to recommend Johannesburg as a travel
destination. It then proves that the most important factors for Johannesburg's local tourists were the destination's image and the need to want to recommend a destination that met their travel expectations. The study made a unique contribution in that it added to the current comprehension of city rejuvenation from the perspective of local tourists. These are tourists already familiar with a destination.
However, it was interesting to know which factors they would be willing to consider for the destination to appeal to them as a potential holiday attraction.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Like any other, the present research had its own fair share of limitations. First, the limitations were practical and second, theoretical. Regarding the practical limitations, the research was purely quantitative, which meant that it was objective but possibly needed to obtain findings with much depth, as in the case of a qualitative study. It was because a closed-ended questionnaire was utilized, restricting participants from fully expressing their views on the subject. It would be beneficial for further research on the topic to use a mixed-method approach that incorporates both quantitative and qualitative research approaches.
Another practical limitation was that all participants were from Johannesburg, a single location largely homogenous demographically.
It then meant that participants from the same region possessing similar characteristics would probably have provided participant bias.
Further research, therefore, calls for a more diverse sample, multiple regions, and participants from a broader demographic sample. These considerations mean that responses for city rejuvenation, city brand identity, city perceptions, destination image, and intention to recommend a destination differ. This difference could reveal interesting insights.
As for the theoretical limitations, it is possible that the study did not test some potential hypotheses, for example, a direct relationship between city rejuvenation and intention to recommend. It would be interesting to find out how the city’s rejuvenation would directly influence a local tourist’s intention to suggest that city to other potential visitors.
REFERENCES
[1] Brand South Africa, South Africa’s tourism industry. 2012. Available at:
https://www.brandsouthafrica.com/touris m-south-africa/travel/tourism-overview.
[2] Bui, T. L. H., G. S. Perez, and G. V. Bureau.
2010. Destination branding: The comparative case study of Guam and Vietnam. Journal of International Business Research 9(2), 95-111.
[3] Usakli, A., and S. Baloglu. 2011. Brand personality of tourist destinations: An application of self-congruity theory.
Tourism management 32(1), 114-127.
[4] Nagooroo, N.A. 2006. The impact of the Sho't Left tourism marketing campaign on Orlando West Residents. Thesis.
University of KwaZulu-Natal.
[5] Bašan, L., L. Bagarić, and D. Lončarić.
2013. Impact of brand recognition on reinforcing the destination's image.
Tourism in Southern and Eastern Europe 1, 87-100.
[6] Qu, H., Kim, L. H., & H. H. Im. 2011. A model of destination branding: Integrating the concepts of the branding and destination image. Tourism management.
32.3. 465-476.
[7] Chen, C. F., and D. Tsai. 2007. How destination image and evaluative factors affect behavioral intentions?. Tourism Management 28(4), 1115-1122.
[8] Fyall, A., B. Garrod, and Y. Wang. 2012.
Destination collaboration: A critical review of theoretical approaches to a multi- dimensional phenomenon. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management.
1(1-2), 10-26.
[9] Prayag, G., S. Hosany, and K. Odeh. 2013.
The role of tourists' emotional experiences and satisfaction in understanding behavioral intentions.
Journal of Destination Marketing and Management 2(2), 118-127.
[10] Statistics South Africa. 2015. An economic look at the tourism industry | Statistics South Africa. Available at:
http://www.statssa.gov.za/.
[11] Magni, P. 2013. Strategic spatial planning’s role in guiding infrastructure delivery in a metropolitan municipality context: The case of Johannesburg. Spatial Planning and Infrastructure. The 49th ISOCARP Congress. Brisbane, ISOCARP.
[12] Campbell, J.T. 2017. Johannesburg City, History, and Points of Interest Britannica.
Available at:
https://www.britannica.com/place/Johan nesburg-South-Africa.
[13] Statista. 2020. Johannesburg Municipality.
Available at: https://www.statista.com/
statistics/1043366.
[14] Brodie, R. J., J. R. Whittome, and G. J.
Brush. 2009. Investigating the service brand: A customer value perspective.
Journal of Business Research 62(3), 345- 355.
[15] Chirisa, I., and A. Matamanda. 2019.
Forces shaping urban morphology in Southern Africa today: Unequal interplay among people, practice and policy.
Journal of Urbanism: International Research on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability 2019, 1-24.
[16] Braun, E., M. Kavaratzis, and S. Zenker.
2013. My City–My Brand: the different roles of residents in place branding.
Journal of Place Management and Development 6(1), 18-28.
[17] Braun, E., J. Eshuis, and E. H. Klijn. 2014.
The effectiveness of place brand communication. Cities 41, 64-70.
[18] Moilanen, T., and S. Rainisto. 2009. City and destination branding. In: How to brand nations, cities and destinations.
Palgrave Macmillan, London.
[19] Shani, A., and Y. Wang. 2011. Destination image development and communication.
In: Destination Marketing and Management: Theories and Applications, 130-48. Oxford, UK, CAB International.
[20] Lee, J., and L. K. Xie. 2011. Cognitive destination image, destination personality and behavioral intentions: An integrated perspective of destination branding. Paper presented at the 16th Graduate Students Research Conference, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.
[21] Soscia, I. 2007. Gratitude, delight, or guilt:
The role of consumers' emotions in predicting postconsumption behaviors.
Psychology and Marketing 24(10), 871- 894.
[22] Tung, V. W. S., and J. B. Ritchie. 2011.
Exploring the essence of memorable tourism experiences. Annals of tourism research. 38.4, 1367-1386.
[23] Brakus J. J., B. H. Schmitt, and L.
Zarantonello. 2009. Brand experience:
what is it? How is it measured? Does it affect loyalty?. Journal of Marketing 73(3), 52-68.
[24] Stylidis, D., A. Biran, J. Sit, and E. M.
Szivas. 2014. Residents' support for tourism development: The role of residents' place image and perceived tourism impacts. Tourism Management 45, 260-274.
[25] Wang, C. Y., and Hsu. M. K. 2010. The relationships of destination image, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions: An integrated model. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 27(8), 829-843.
[26] Tian, K., B. Zhang, H. Mouftah, Z., Zhao, and J. Ma. 2009. Destination-driven on- demand multicast routing protocol for wireless ad hoc networks. In 2009 IEEE International Conference on Communications.
[27] Biel, A. L. 1993. Converting image into equity. In: Brand Equity and Advertising:
Advertising’s Role in Building Strong Brands 26(10), 67-81.
[28] Clarno, A., and M. J. Murray. 2013.
Policing in Johannesburg after apartheid. Social dynamics. 39. 2. 210- 227.
[29] Palatkova, M. 2012. Travel and tourism marketing-review. Czech Journal of Tourism 1(1), 30-52.
[30] Murphy, L., P. Benckendorff, and G.
Moscardo. 2007. Linking travel motivation, tourist self-image and destination brand personality. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 22(2), 45- 59.
[31] Tasci, A. D., and W. C. Gartner. 2007.
Destination image and its functional relationships. Journal of Travel Research 45(4), 413-425.
[32] Wang, X., and C. H. Leou. 2015. A study of tourism motivation, perceived value and destination loyalty for Macao cultural and heritage tourists. International Journal of Marketing Studies 7(6), 83-91.
[33] Chi, C. G. Q., and H. Qu. 2008. Examining the structural relationships of destination image, tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty: An integrated approach. Tourism Management 29(4), 624-636.
[34] Eusébio, C., and A. L. Vieira. 2013.
Destination attributes' evaluation, satisfaction and behavioural intentions: A structural modelling approach.
International Journal of Tourism Research 15(1), 66-80.
[35] Assaker, G., and R. Hallak. 2013.
Moderating effects of tourists’ novelty-
seeking tendencies on destination image, visitor satisfaction, and short-and long- term revisit intentions. Journal of Travel Research. 52.5. 600-613.
[36] Choi, J. G., T. Tkachenko, and S. Sil. 2011.
On the destination image of Korea by Russian tourists. Tourism Management 32(1), 193-194.
[37] Nadeau, J., L. Heslop, N. O’Reilly, and P.
Luk. 2008. Destination in a country image context. Annals of Tourism Research 35(1), 84-106.
[38] Chen, C. F., and S. Phou. 2013. A closer look at destination: Image, personality, relationship and loyalty. Tourism
Management 36, 269-278.
[39] del Bosque, I. R., and H. San Martín. 2008.
Tourist satisfaction a cognitive-affective model. Annals of Tourism Research 35(2), 551-573.
[40] Zhang, H., X. Fu, L. A. Cai, and L. Lu. 2014.
Destination image and tourist loyalty: A meta-analysis. Tourism Management 40, 213-223.
[41] Mgxaji, B., R. Chinomona, and T. Chuchu.
2016. The predictors of business performance in the investment management industry. Journal of Global Business and Technology 12(2), 56-69.
[42] Grappi, S., and F. Montanari. 2011. The role of social identification and hedonism in affecting tourist re-patronizing behaviours: The case of an Italian festival.
Tourism management 32(5), 1128-1140.
[43] Gumpo, C. I. V., T. Chuchu, E. T. Maziriri, and N. W. Madinga. 2020. Examining the usage of Instagram as a source of Information for young consumers when determining tourist destinations. South African Journal of Information Management 22(1), 1-11.
[44] Brandt, C., and C. P. de Mortanges. 2011.
City branding: A brand concept map analysis of a university town. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 7, 50-63.
DOI: 10.1057/pb.2010.37.
[45] Merrilees, B., D. Miller, and C. Herington.
2009. Antecedents of residents' city brand attitudes. Journal of Business Research 62(3), 362-367.
[46] Katahenggam, N. 2020. Tourist perceptions and preferences of authenticity in heritage tourism: visual comparative study of George Town and Singapore. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change 18(4), 371-385.
[47] Eid, R., Y. A., El-Kassrawy, and G. Agag.
2019. Integrating destination attributes, political (in) stability, destination image, tourist satisfaction, and intention to recommend: A study of UAE. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research 43(6), 839-866. DOI: 10.1177/10963480198377 50.
[48] Zhou, Q., Y. Pu, and C. Su. 2022. The mediating roles of memorable tourism experiences and destination image in the correlation between cultural heritage rejuvenation experience quality and revisiting intention. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics (ahead-of-print).
[49] Vinh, T. T., and T. T. K. Phuong. 2017.
Examining the interrelationships among destination brand image, destination perceived quality, tourist satisfaction and tourist loyalty: evidence from Danang city, Vietnam. International Journal of Tourism Policy 7(4), 352-374.
[50] Pomfret, G., and B. Bramwell. 2016. The characteristics and motivational decisions of outdoor adventure tourists: A review and analysis. Current Issues in Tourism 19(14), 1447-1478.
[51] Sinambela, E. A. 2021. Examining the Relationship between Tourist Motivation, Touristic Attractiveness, and Revisit Intention. Journal of Social Science Studies 1(1), 25-30.
[52] Kim, W., K. Malek, N. Kim, and S. J. Kim.
2017. Destination personality, destination image, and intent to recommend: The role of gender, age, cultural background, and prior experiences. Sustainability 10(1), 1- 18. DOI: 10.3390/su10010087.
[53] Coelho, A., Bairrada, C., Simão, L., and Barbosa, C. 2022. The drivers of the city brand equity comparing citizens’ and tourists’ perceptions and its influence on the city attractiveness: The case of the city of Coimbra. International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Administration 23(2), 242-268. DOI: 10.1080/15256480.
2020.1746215.
[54] Mai, K. N., P. N. D. Nguyen, and P. T. M.
Nguyen. 2019. International tourists’
loyalty to Ho Chi Minh City destination—a mediation analysis of perceived service quality and perceived value. Sustainability 11(19), 1-16. DOI: 10.3390/su11195447.
