Volume 25 Number 1 Article 1
July 2023
Turning Ubud Into UNWTO's Prototype for A World Gastronomic Turning Ubud Into UNWTO's Prototype for A World Gastronomic Destination Through Gastrodiplomacy
Destination Through Gastrodiplomacy
Alessandro Kurniawan Ulung
Universitas Satya Negara Indonesia, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation
Ulung, Alessandro Kurniawan (2023) "Turning Ubud Into UNWTO's Prototype for A World Gastronomic Destination Through Gastrodiplomacy," Global: Jurnal Politik Internasional: Vol. 25: No. 1, Pp. 1-26.
DOI: 10.7454/global.v25i1.1261
Available at: https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/global/vol25/iss1/1
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences at UI Scholars Hub. It has been accepted for inclusion in Global: Jurnal Politik Internasional by an authorized editor of UI Scholars
Turning Ubud Into UNWTO's Prototype for A World Gastronomic Destination Through Gastrodiplomacy
Alessandro Kurniawan Ulung Universitas Satya Negara Indonesia
Email: [email protected]
Submitted: 8 January 2023; accepted: 19 May 2023
ABSTRAK
Pada tahun 2019, pemerintah Indonesia mengajukan Ubud di Bali sebagai prototipe destinasi gastronomi dunia ke Organisasi Pariwisata Dunia Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (UNWTO). Meskipun Ubud memiliki inventaris aset dan atraksi gastronominya yang kaya, Indonesia ternyata menghadapi sejumlah tantangan ketika meyakinkan UNWTO bahwa Ubud layak mendapatkan gelar tersebut. Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, pemerintah melakukan diplomasi gastronomi atau gastrodiplomasi untuk mempengaruhi UNWTO agar mendukung Ubud sebagai tujuan gastronomi dunia. Penelitian ini, oleh karena itu, ingin menjelaskan implementasi gastrodiplomasi Indonesia untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut. Dengan menggunakan metode kualitatif dengan analisis interpretatif, penulis berargumen bahwa, pemerintah menggunakan gastrodiplomasi untuk memperkenalkan beragam budaya, sejarah dan tradisi di balik kelezatan kuliner Bali, termasuk cerita tentang jalur rempah di Bali, dan memanfaatkannya sebagai kekuatan lunak (soft power) untuk meyakinkan UNWTO bahwa Ubud telah memenuhi semua kriteria prototipe destinasi gastronomi dunia. Pemerintah melihat kisah tentang jalur rempah sebagai kekuatan dalam pariwisata gastronomi Ubud karena jalur ini bisa menjelaskan mengapa hidangan Bali kaya akan rasa, budaya, dan nilai-nilai sejarah. Pemerintah juga melibatkan aktor non-negara dalam gastrodiplomasi.
Meskipun mereka melakukan strategi yang berbeda dalam implementasi diplomasi gastronomi, kolaborasi mereka ternyata mampu memperkuat gastrodiplomasi Indonesia dalam meyakinkan UNWTO untuk mempromosikan Ubud sebagai destinasi gastronomi dunia.
Kata kunci: Gastrodiplomasi; Gastronomi; Indonesia; Ubud; UNWTO
ABSTRACT
In 2019, the Indonesian Government proposed Ubud in Bali to become the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) 's prototype for a world gastronomic destination. It turned out that, despite its rich inventory of gastronomic assets and attractions, Ubud met with challenges when convincing UNWTO to give it the title. To deal with this problem, the Indonesian Government practised gastrodiplomacy to influence UNWTO to endorse Ubud as the world gastronomic destination. This research, therefore, aims to explain the implementation of Indonesia's gastrodiplomacy. By using a qualitative method with interpretative analysis in place, I argued that the Government used gastrodiplomacy to introduce diverse culture, history and tradition behind Balinese culinary delights, including the story about the spice trail, and used them as soft power to convince UNWTO that Ubud had ticked all the criteria of the world gastronomic destination. The Government saw the spice trail story as the strength of Ubud's gastronomic tourism because it can explain why Balinese dishes are rich in flavour, cultural and historical values. The Government also invited non-state actors to take part in the project. Though they did different strategies for implementing gastrodiplomacy, their collaboration strengthened Indonesia's gastrodiplomacy in convincing UNWTO to promote Ubud as the world gastronomic destination.
Keywords: Gastrodiplomacy; Gastronomy; Indonesia; Ubud; UNWTO
INTRODUCTION
Aware of rich gastronomic assets across Ubud in Bali, Indonesia expected the town to become the world's favourite gastronomic destination. In 2019, the country endorsed Ubud to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), encouraging the body to name the Balinese town its prototype for a world gastronomic destination. The Government sought to make Ubud's gastronomic tourism receive global recognition from UNWTO (Agmasari, 2019a; Maharani, 2019). However, it turned out that in 2020, the Covid-19 pandemic struck the Government's efforts and hit Bali's tourism industry, including the gastronomic attractions in Ubud. As the virus spread quickly across the archipelago, the Government focused on saving the people and prioritising the health sector. The pandemic forced the Government to halt its attempts to get UNWTO's recognition for Ubud's gastronomic tourism. As such, UNWTO has yet to name Ubud its prototype for a gastronomic destination (Datau, interview, January 4, 2023).
Despite that fact, this research will focus on gastrodiplomacy carried out by the Indonesian Government and non-state actors in order to get the prestigious title before the COVID-19 pandemic, with the time frame starting from 2017 to 2019. I consider the practice of Indonesian gastrodiplomacy to UNWTO an interesting research topic because it marks Indonesia's first attempt to make a local gastronomic destination get international recognition from UNWTO. The Ministry of Tourism saw the opportunity after Peru withdrew from UNWTO's prototype project in 2016 due to the Peruvian general election. Its withdrawal motivated Indonesia to propose Ubud to replace Peru. Since 2017, the ministry has been working on introducing Ubud's gastronomic assets to UNWTO through gastrodiplomacy (Datau, interview, January 4, 2023). In 2019, the Government made an official bid to the body.
Like Indonesia, Thailand also intended to replace Peru, seeking the title of a world gastronomic destination from UNWTO (Datau, interview, January 4, 2023). Thailand’s bid to become the UNWTO prototype posed a challenge to Indonesia because Thailand developed gastronomic tourism much earlier than Indonesia. Indonesia is rich in gastronomic assets and attractions. Still, the archipelagic country began to see gastronomic tourism as an important sector when Mari Elka Pangestu led the ministry from 2011 to 2014. Thailand, meanwhile, has developed the sector since the 1990s, launching various campaigns to attract inbound travellers, such as Discover Thainess in 2015. With this campaign, Thailand attempted to use Thai cuisine to introduce and promote its unique values to foreigners, including local lifestyle (Park et al., 2019, p. 22). To that end, the Thai Government connected local cuisine with agriculture, food
supply and related activities by involving local communities and stakeholders in the sectors (Park et al., 2019, p. 130). The development of Thai gastronomic tourism encouraged UNWTO to trust Thailand to host the fourth edition of the UNWTO Forum on Gastronomy Tourism in 2018, making it the first Asian country to host the annual forum (UNWTO, 2018).
While Thai gastronomic tourism has developed, Indonesian tourism still faces health, hygiene, and security challenges. According to Travel & Tourism Index 2019, Indonesian tourism received red reports for environmental sustainability, human resources, health, hygiene, security and safety (Wahyuni et al., 2021, p. 11). Indonesia has better price competitiveness and natural and cultural resources than Thailand. However, Thailand has better infrastructure, business environment, health, and hygiene than Indonesia. In terms of infrastructure development, for example, Indonesia ranked seventy-first out of 140 countries, while Thailand ranked second (Calderwood & Soshkin, 2019, p. 68).
In the practice of gastrodiplomacy, Thailand is also more experienced than Indonesia.
The term ‘gastrodiplomacy’ first appeared after Thailand launched the Thai Kitchen to the World initiative in 2002 to expand the presence of Thai restaurants abroad (Alexandra &
Mujiono, 2019; Lipscomb, 2019; Pham, 2013). The initiative has made Thailand the first country in the world to launch a gastrodiplomacy campaign (Park et al., 2019).
In international relations, gastrodiplomacy has caused a debate due to the overlapping definitions of gastrodiplomacy and culinary diplomacy, and scholars have yet to reach an agreement on this issue (Baskoro, 2022, p. 231). Paul Rockower defined gastrodiplomacy as the practice of using food to communicate and share culture, history, and heritage to raise the brand awareness of a nation in other countries (Rockower, 2012, p. 235). His definition looks similar to culinary diplomacy. Sam Chapple-Sokol explained that culinary diplomacy meant the use of food to create cross-cultural understanding, strengthen cooperation, and improve interactions (Sonenshine et al., 2016, p. 10). As gastrodiplomacy and culinary diplomacy perceive cuisine as a tool to achieve a particular goal of a country, the two terms have provoked a debate as to whether they are similar.
Rockower argued that gastrodiplomacy differed from culinary diplomacy because the former aimed to raise international awareness of a country's cultural heritage, while the latter aimed to strengthen bilateral ties of a country. In culinary diplomacy, food enables Governments to enhance their formal diplomacy in official diplomatic settings. Using food for diplomatic pursuits, culinary diplomacy targets high-level elites. Gastrodiplomacy, meanwhile, selects foreign public as an object of attention (Rockower, 2012, p. 237)
Unlike Rockower, Chapple-Sokol said that gastrodiplomacy is similar to public culinary diplomacy. Public culinary diplomacy is conducted by anyone interested in foreign cuisine (Chapple-Sokol, 2013, p. 182). When culinary diplomacy is carried out by diplomats and statemen behind closed doors, it is called private culinary diplomacy. For Chapple-Sokol, Rockower’s definition of 'culinary diplomacy' refers to private culinary diplomacy. Sokol considered that gastrodiplomacy is public culinary diplomacy and is a subcomponent of public diplomacy (Chapple-Sokol, 2016).
Food is also different from gastronomy. Gastronomy connects food with people and culture (UNWTO, 2021). Therefore, gastronomy offers not only food to taste, but also activities to meet people behind food and experience their culture. For Seyitoğlu (2021), gastronomy is a universal activity because it exposes people to food in many aspects, from design, service, concepts, to cooking and tasting experiences. In Indonesia, gastronomic tourism is offered by Ubud. According to Long, the first person to conceptualise 'gastronomic tourism,' the term means tourism that offers tourists the opportunity to experience other cultures through food (Aydın, 2020; Sonenshine et al., 2016).
To give tourists a complete culinary experience, which includes the opportunity to experience the culture behind food, gastronomic tourism sets up various activities, ranging from observing food production, distribution, and sales, to shopping, cooking, tasting, and eating food, and understanding the economic aspect of food (Neill et al., 2017; Seyitoğlu, 2021). Such activities aim to increase tourist arrivals and enrich their knowledge about the history and culture of local cuisines in the destination. Therefore, gastronomic tourists are cultural adventurers or explorers because they travel to seek, explore, and experience new cultures (Kivela & Crotts, 2009).
In 2019, tourism minister Arief Yahya proposed Ubud to UNWTO, expecting the organisation to choose the town as its prototype for a gastronomic destination. The term
‘prototype’ means the first model of a world gastronomic destination approved and endorsed by UNWTO. The prototype will become a role model for other destinations around the world to follow and duplicate (Datau, interview, March 12, 2023). The gastronomic destination prototype is part of the Prototype Methodology project developed by UNWTO. This organisation rolled out the Prototype Methodology to establish a formal framework for the public and private sectors to share knowledge and implement tourism projects that improve competitiveness in an ethical and sustainable environment. Before the gastronomic tourism
prototype, UNWTO developed three prototypes, including UNWTO Wine Tourism Prototype:
The Joyful Journey in Spain in 2016 (UNWTO, 2017a).
The Government considers the UNWTO prototype important because it will function as a UNWTO certification that Ubud is a world-class gastronomic destination (Agmasari, 2019b). The UNWTO certification enables Indonesia to use it as a guideline for other destinations to duplicate, a branding strategy to promote Ubud’s gastronomic tourism, and a proof to show that Ubud has met the global standards (Datau, interview, March 12, 2023).
If Ubud manages to become the UNWTO prototype, the organisation will promote Ubud’s gastronomic tourism at a global level, develop innovative experiences and products, and engage local communities to create gastronomic tourism clusters (Datau, interview, March 12, 2023; Maharani, 2019). The Government expects such advantages to brand Indonesian gastronomic tourism, increase foreign arrivals, and develop local tourism and national economy because around thirty to forty per cent of tourism expenditure goes to food consumption (Datau, interview, March 12, 2023; Maharani, 2019).
To become the UNWTO prototype, a country must show that its people treat food as a lifestyle and use local produce to make food. Food should also be nutritious and healthy and have rich local stories, culture, and history (Agmasari, 2019a). Indonesia proposed Ubud because the Government believed that Ubud had met such criteria. First, the people of Ubud embrace cuisine as part of their lifestyle. Second, they use local produce. Third, Balinese food has stories and cultural and historical values. Fourth, the city administration sets up programmes to support local tourism (Agmasari, 2019). As Indonesia communicated the Balinese culture, history, and tradition behind Ubud’s culinary delights to convince UNWTO that Ubud deserves the prototype title, the action illustrated the practice of gastrodiplomacy.
Several studies have discussed Ubud's gastronomy, but they merely explain the historical and cultural values behind the Balinese culinary delights in Ubud (Diatmika et al., 2017; Suardana et al., 2019; Yanthy & Aryanti, 2019) and the benefits of Ubud's gastronomic tourism to society (Dewi & Priadarsini, 2018; Widayanthi et al., 2022; Yanthy & Aryanti, 2019). Dewi & Priadarsini (2018), for example, specifically examined the contributions of the Ubud Food Festival to the development of Ubud’s gastronomic tourism. However, those researchers overlooked the use of Balinese cuisine as soft power. The term ‘soft power’ refers to the ability to achieve goals through attraction rather than coercion (Gomichon, 2013).
Previous studies do not discuss how food can become soft power for a country to influence
other countries, international organisations, or foreign communities. Therefore, this paper attempts to fill the gap by examining the use of Balinese culinary delights as soft power.
This paper has three contributions. First, it fills the research gap by comparing the implementation of gastrodiplomacy as soft power carried out by the Government as a state actor and by non-state actors. Such comparison matters to understand the differences between the state and non-state actors in the way they perceive food as soft power and use it to achieve a goal. Second, this paper explains how food, culture, and history shaped Ubud's gastronomy and how they became soft power. Third, this paper enriches literature on Indonesian gastrodiplomacy.
This paper focuses on the practice of gastrodiplomacy as soft power used by the Government and non-state actors to communicate the lifestyle, history, culture, tradition and local stories behind the Balinese dishes to UNWTO. Those aspects need to be communicated in order to show UNWTO that the criteria of its pilot gastronomic destination have been met in Ubud. This paper has three parts. First, I reviewed literature about soft power and gastrodiplomacy. Second, I explained a qualitative method used in this research. Third, I discussed gastrodiplomacy used as soft power by the Government and non-state actors to help Ubud's gastronomic tourism get international recognition from UNWTO. In this discussion, I also identified cultural and historical values behind Ubud's culinary delights and explained strategies used by the Government and non-state actors to convince UNWTO that Ubud deserves its prototype title.
ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK
In this research, I argue that gastrodiplomacy is soft power because gastrodiplomacy carried out by Indonesia to make Ubud become the UNWTO prototype illustrates how the country uses attraction to influence UNWTO to name Ubud the prototype. The attraction here refers to the Balinese culture, history, and tradition communicated by Indonesia to UNWTO. The use of attraction to achieve a goal illustrates soft power. That’s why, for me, gastrodipolomacy is soft power. I discuss the relationship between soft power and gastrodiplomacy in detail below.
Understanding Soft Power
According to renowned political scientist Joseph Nye, soft power is the ability to achieve goals through attraction rather than coercion. In soft power, others are influenced to want the outcomes we want (Gomichon, 2013). Nye explained that soft power is based on intangible or
indirect influences, such as culture, values, and ideology. As a concept, soft power refers to how a political body can influence the actions of other entities through direct or indirect influence or encouragement. The influence is often cultural or ideological. The political body is often, but not necessarily, a state (Rakhmawati, 2017).
Ang (2015) stressed that culture per se is not soft power on its own. She said that cultural attractiveness becomes soft power when it is used to reach clearly defined policy objectives under a thought-out strategy. If a country does that, it means that it uses culture as a soft power resource. Soft power is different from hard power, but it does not mean that soft power exists to replace hard power. Soft power complements hard power (Ang et al., 2015).
Culture becomes soft power when it is universally seen as appealing and universally embodied in cultural goods and services. Like culture, political values become soft power when it lives up at home and abroad. Foreign policies become soft power when other countries see that the policies are legitimate and have moral authority (Ang et al., 2015).
Understanding Gastrodiplomacy
The term 'gastrodiplomacy' first appeared in 2002 when Thailand attempted to use Thai restaurants worldwide as informal centres to do public diplomacy (Lipscomb, 2019; Pham, 2013). In the implementation of gastrodiplomacy programme, the Thai Government increased the number of Thai restaurants from 5,000 to 8,000 to introduce Thai food to foreign people and lure them to travel to Thailand. Today, Thailand has nearly 20,000 Thai restaurants around the globe (Pham, 2013).
In Rockower's words, gastrodiplomacy is "the act of winning hearts and minds through the stomach". He defined gastrodiplomacy as a country's action to use its culinary delights to conduct public diplomacy and raise nation-brand awareness. In gastrodiplomacy, a country uses food as a medium to make foreign people aware of its brand and its culinary and cultural richness. Therefore, Rockower explained that gastrodiplomacy is a form of public diplomacy to communicate policy, culture, and values to foreign publics (Part et al., 2016; Pham, 2013;
Rockower, 2012).
Rockower stressed that gastrodiplomacy aims to introduce culture through the sense of taste (Rockower, 2012). It means that gastrodiplomacy seeks to make the foreign public aware of culture through food. If a country launches gastrodiplomacy, it tries to use food to communicate its culture. Pham agrees with Rockower's definition. However, for her, gastrodiplomacy is not just a practice of raising awareness of national brand through food, but
also of encouraging trade and economic investment and engaging on a cultural and personal level with everyday diners (Pham, 2013).
Lipscomb (2019), meanwhile, highlighted the importance of gastrodiplomacy in creating the nation's image. She said that a country could use food to build an image. Some countries such as Thailand, South Korea, and Taiwan connected their signature foods with the national identities they established. Therefore, gastrodiplomacy is not always related to promoting delicious foods abroad. It is about showing national identity based on national character, language tradition and culture (Djumala, 2020; Sonenshine et al., 2016)
The fact that gastrodiplomacy targets the foreign public has distinguished it from culinary diplomacy, according to Rockower. He explained that in culinary diplomacy, food becomes a medium for governments to formally enhance their diplomacy strategy in official diplomatic events, such as visits by the head of state, ambassadors, and other dignitaries.
Culinary diplomacy uses food for diplomatic pursuits and aims to strengthen bilateral ties.
Unlike gastrodiplomacy, culinary diplomacy targets high-level elites (Rockower, 2012;
Sonenshine et al., 2016)
Figure 1. The relationship of gastrodiplomacy, cultural diplomacy, public diplomacy, and soft power
Source: Baskoro, 2017
It can also be said that gastrodiplomacy is part of cultural diplomacy because gastronomy is the product of people's culture. Cultural diplomacy is the exchange of art, ideas, information, and all aspects of culture to give people of different nations mutual understanding.
Cultural diplomacy aims to win hearts and minds through culture. Cultural diplomacy is part of public diplomacy because public diplomacy revolves around communicating culture and values to the foreign public. Gastrodiplomacy is related to cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy. They have one thing in common: using culture and food to influence others (Baskoro, 2017). Using attractions such as culture and food is soft power (Gomichon, 2013).
A country considers soft power important when realising that it has limited hard power.
In this international system, superpowers have dominated the distribution of hard power.
Aware of that situation, the middle and small powers see the need to improve soft power through gastrodiplomacy to show their existence in the international community dominated by superpowers (Trihartono et al., 2020). As part of soft power, gastrodiplomacy matters not only to introduce and promote national cuisine to other countries, but also to gain economic benefits.
If the cuisine becomes popular worldwide, the popularity will benefit the tourism sector of the country because it can attract foreign people to taste the cuisine in the country of its origin.
Gastrodiplomacy can increase foreign arrivals and develop local tourism (Alexandra &
Mujiono, 2019).
RESEARCH METHOD
I use qualitative method to describe how gastrodiplomacy is utilised to promote Ubud to become the UNWTO prototype for a world gastronomic destination. Qualitative research aims to understand phenomena in context, explain beliefs and behaviour, identify processes, and understand the context of people's experiences (Hennink et al., 2020). I chose the qualitative method to understand gastrodiplomacy as a phenomenon, explain the beliefs and behaviour of the Government and non-state actors, and understand how they convince UNWTO to grant Ubud the prototype title. For this research, I reviewed literature, collected, reduced, and analysed data from books, interviews, reports, journals, and news reports. I also interviewed Vita Datau, the Chairman of Culinary and Shopping Tourism Acceleration Team at the Ministry of Tourism from 2016 to 2019. I chose her because she represented the Government when performing gastrodiplomacy in UNWTO forums during that period.
To explain gastrodiplomacy carried out by non-state actors, I interviewed academic Putu Diah Sastri Pitanatri from Bali Tourism Polytechnic. I chose her because she was a member of a local team in Ubud, which curated, mapped and narrated the contributions of non- state actors to the development of Ubud’s gastronomic tourism. The contributions include the practice of gastrodiplomacy that the non-state actors have carried out to communicate Balinese culture, history, and local stories to foreigners. The contributions of non-state actors were written by the local team in a report. This report was then submitted to UNWTO for its assessment of Ubud's suitability for the title. The report shows that non-state actors contributed to helping Ubud become UNWTO’s pilot gastronomic destination, thanks to the local team.
DISCUSSION
Located in the regency of Gianyar, Ubud is home to eighteen meat dishes, thirteen vegetable dishes, fourteen beverages, fifteen traditional cakes, two modern cakes, fifteen cakes for religious ceremonies, and twenty-three other processed foods1 (Suardana et al., 2019). To make Ubud the UNWTO prototype, Indonesia must show that gastronomic tourism in the Balinese town has connected food with people, culture, history and local stories. Showing the connection to UNWTO means that the country is practising gastrodiplomacy because, according to Rockower (2012), gastrodiplomacy communicates culture and values to foreign publics. Soft power, meanwhile, means that it influences others to want the outcomes we want through attraction.
Combining these two definitions, I argue that gastrodiplomacy is kind of a soft power, in which the cultural and historical values communicated by the Government and non-state actors to UNWTO could be classified as attractions. Therefore, I will first discuss the historical and cultural values behind the Balinese cuisine. Afterwards, I will explain how the government and non-state actors used gastrodiplomacy to present the values to influence UNWTO to endorse Ubud as its pilot gastronomic destination.
Identifying Historical Values in Balinese Cuisine
Indonesia proposed Ubud to become the UNWTO prototype because, among other reasons, the Government saw that Balinese cuisine has rich historical values. The history can be traced back to the era when foreign traders travelled to Spice Trail, which is trading routes to and from Indonesia’s Spice Islands, including Bali. They went to Bali to search for nutmeg, cloves and other spices. In the practice of gastrodiplomacy as soft power, Indonesia shared the stories about the Spice Trail with UNWTO, showing the organisation that the trail is proof of historical values in Balinese cuisine. The stories about the Spice Trail are the attraction used by the country to influence UNWTO’s decision.
The Spice Trail makes Balinese gastronomic assets, such as basic seasoning base genep, rich in history and stories. As part of the trail, Bali became the main trade route used to deliver spices and fragrant woods from the Moluccas and Lesser Sundas to ports in western Indonesia.
In the first century AD, Mediterranean people travelled to Bali to seek spices (Ardika &
Bellwood, 1991).
Three pieces of evidence show that Bali is part of the Spice Trail. The first are three ancient ports in north-eastern Bali: Julah, Pacung, and Sembiran. The three ports witnessed the
cultural and social interactions between Balinese and merchants. They were foreign merchants and local merchants known as Wong Sunantara. Merchants stopped in the ports to replenish supplies, such as mineral water. They offered the Balinese people to exchange water for their goods, such as ceramics (Ardhana, 2021). In the Sembiran port, the interactions between Indian merchants and Balinese occurred in the early Christian era (Ardika & Bellwood, 1991).
The interactions between locals and foreign merchants were recorded in a number of north Balinese inscriptions dating from the first to second millennia AD. For example, the inscription of Bebetin (AD 896) mentioned the arrivals of seafaring merchants at Banua Baru in north Bali, showing that trade activities took place in north-eastern Bali about 1000 years ago (Ardika & Bellwood, 1991).
The second evidence is jeringau, a spice believed to cure fever and toothache in Bali.
Jeringau was reportedly from India. It grew in Bali after Indian traders travelled to the island and introduced the plant to the Balinese (Jalur Rempah RI, 2020). This archipelagic country became their destination for the search for spices because in India, the archipelago was known to have the best spices. The Ramayana, for example, mentioned that agarwood and sandalwood from eastern Indonesia had the best quality. The trade between Balinese and traders from South Asia was mentioned in Manjusrimulakalpa of 800 AD, the oldest Indian record of Bali (Ardika
& Bellwood, 1991).
The third evidence is uang kepeng, old Chinese coins with a square hole in the centre.
Uang kepeng witnessed trade relations between Balinese and Chinese in Bali from 900 BC to 1,250 BC. They used the coins as a medium of exchange for goods, including spices. After the coins no longer became a currency, the Balinese used them as offerings because they believed that the coins possessed divine power to bring luck and happiness. They also use uang kepeng to make handicrafts and decorate artistic objects, such as statues of Hindu Gods and Goddesses (Parameswara, 2016).
Identifying Cultural Values in Balinese Cuisine
In Bali, food has a connection to culture because people make food not only for daily consumption, but also for cultural and religious ceremonies. Such connection becomes the strength in Ubud's bid for the UNWTO prototype because this organisation requires the prototype to have cultural values behind the food. Gastrodiplomacy allows Indonesia to show UNWTO the connection between food and culture in Balinese cuisine. Gastrodiplomacy functions as soft power to convince UNWTO that Ubud deserves the prototype title.
The connection between food and culture can be seen in Barong dance performance, which narrates the battle between good and evil. During the show, the dancer is clad in a costume depicting Barong, a lion-like mythological creature, with fruits and vegetables decorating the mask (Putra et al., 2018, p. 24). Ubud’s original dishes, such as babi guling (suckling pig), bebek betutu (Balinese slow-cooked duck) and ayam betutu (Balinese slow- cooked chicken), also show the connection. Before being commercialised as they are today, the three dishes were cooked and presented as offerings by Balinese people for dewa yadnya (temple ceremonies dedicated to deities), manusa yadnya (temple ceremonies dedicated to human) and buta yadnya (temple ceremonies dedicated to environment). In dewa yadnya, the dishes are presented as an offering to Gods first before being consumed by people together.
Magedong-gedongan is an example of manusa yadnya, during which they present betutu to unborn offspring as a prayer to hope for a safe birth (Pitanatri, interview, March 16, 2023).
The tradition of cooking together for religious and cultural ceremonies is called Maebat.
This tradition has become a gastronomic attraction for allowing tourists to join and eat Balinese dishes that people cook, such as lawar (Balinese salad) and sate lilit (Balinese satay). For Balinese, sate lilit is philosophically meaningful as it symbolises the weapons of the Gods (Putra et al., 2018, p. 102).
The symbolisation stems from a story about God Vishnu asking Goddess Durga to kill the deceitful demon Mahishasura. Durga told Vishnu that she would kill the demon if the Gods gave her their weapons to combine powers. As such, Balinese cook and present satay as an offering to Goddess Durga during dewa yadnya (Putra et al., 2018, p. 70).
To make sate lilit, Balinese usually process pork. The pork is cooked by men because, according to Balinese custom rules, men have the responsibility for cooking the main ingredients, such as pork and chicken meat. Women, meanwhile, are responsible for simple things, such as cooking rice and preparing vegetables (Putra et al., 2018, p. 32). During Maebat, Balinese serve the satay skewers in odd numbers, namely three, five, seven, and nine, and an even number: twelve. The difference in the number of satay skewers depends on location, time, and situation (Putra et al., 2018, p. 35). By joining Maebat, tourists can experience and understand such custom rules.
Communicating Historical and Cultural Values Through Gastrodiplomacy
According to Kivela & Crotts (2009), gastronomic tourism will make tourists return because it gives them positive perceptions of the destination and their travel experiences. Indonesian
gastronomic tourism was showcased on the global stage when the country proposed Ubud to become the UNWTO prototype. The country practised gastrodiplomacy as soft power to convince UNWTO that Ubud deserved the prototype title. To that end, the Government and non-state actors had different strategies. The former used the Triangle Concept of Indonesian Gastronomy, while the latter created various programmes, such as food festivals and culinary tours. I explained the differences in detail below.
Triangle Concept of Indonesian Gastronomy as The Government's Gastrodiplomacy Strategy In the practice of gastrodiplomacy as soft power, the Ministry of Tourism used the Triangle Concept of Indonesian Gastronomy to influence UNWTO to name Ubud as the UNWTO prototype for a world gastronomic destination. The ministry was represented by Vita Datau Messakh, the chairman of the Culinary and Shopping Tourism Acceleration Team, who spoke at the third, fourth, and fifth editions of the UNWTO World Forum on Gastronomy Tourism in Spain in 2017, Thailand in 2018, and Spain in 2019, respectively.
Figure 2. Triangle Concept of Indonesian Gastronomy
Source: UNWTO, 2017
The Triangle Concept emphasises food, culture, and history in the framework of Indonesian gastronomic tourism development, with stories and ceremonies as the elements that connect the three aspects (Basque Culinary Center, 2018). Rituals and ceremonies make Indonesian food authentic and true to traditional flavours, while storytelling keeps the historical and cultural values of food alive for centuries. The connection between food and history can
be seen in the wealth of spices in Indonesia’s Spice Trail, which historically made this archipelago play a key role in the spice trade for thousands of years (UNWTO, 2017b).
In the practice of gastrodiplomacy, the ministry also involved Penta-Helix stakeholders comprising local government, business people, communities, academics, and journalists to support Ubud to become the UNWTO prototype (Datau, interview, March 12, 2023). The academics, for example, contributed to curating and narrating Ubud’s gastronomic assets and attractions in a report (Pitanatri, interview, March 16, 2023). This report helped the central government explain UNWTO the Triangle Concept and the contributions of Ubud’s gastronomic tourism to the island, from opening jobs, preserving culture and heritage, prospering local communities, and developing local tourism (Basque Culinary Center, 2019).
Using the Triangle Concept in her gastrodiplomacy, Datau communicated the connection between culture, history, and local stories behind Balinese food to convince UNWTO that Ubud ticked the UNWTO prototype criteria (Agmasari, 2019b; Maharani, 2019).
She allowed UNWTO to witness the connection through gastronomic attractions set up by the Penta-Helix stakeholders. Mudra Swari Saraswati Foundation, for example, organises Ubud Food Festival, while Samaya Ubud villa offers Megibung package to allow tourists to experience Megibung, the tradition of eating together to strengthen friendship and kinship.
She also showed the connection between Balinese culture, history, and food through basic seasoning base genep. Base genep, which is the key to the delicacy of Balinese dishes, represents the diversity of spices in Bali. Its wealth of spices historically attracted people around the globe to travel to the island to seek spices for its distinctive taste and health benefits.
Lengkuas (galangal), for example, can rejuvenate skin, lower fever, and reduce cancer risk. For Balinese, the ingredients of base genep also contain religious values. Lengkuas is believed to represent the South and symbolise God Brahma. Kunyit (turmeric), meanwhile, symbolises God Mahadewa in the West, jahe (ginger) for God Vishnu in the North, and kencur (aromatic ginger) for God Iswara in the East (Jalur Rempah RI, 2021).
For the Balinese, spices are gifts from Gods. According to local beliefs, the story begins with a prayer addressed by the legendary Pandava brothers comprising Yudhistira, Bima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sadewa. In meditation, they prayed for the power of taste. Gods then granted their prayer, giving Yudhistira a salty taste, Bima an astringent taste, Arjuna a bitter taste, Nakula a spicy taste, and Sadewa a sweet taste. The tastes then manifested in the form of spices, namely aromatic ginger for the saltiness, galangal for the astringent taste, turmeric for
the bitterness, ginger for the spiciness, and garlic and onion for the sweetness (Suwarna et al., 2019).
To weigh the ingredients of base genep, Balinese do not use a scale, but fingers, namely a pinkie to measure aromatic ginger, a ring finger for ginger, a middle finger for galangal, and an index finger for turmeric (Jalur Rempah RI, 2021). The use of fingers enriches the story about base genep in the Triangle Concept because the food will taste different if the cook is different. Ayam betutu is also rich in stories, not only because the dish philosophically embodies the request for holiness and dharma before the Gods, but also because it requires a slow-cooking technique. The chicken first needs to marinate in base genep for three to seven hours or even twelve hours. The marinated chicken is then slowly grilled for eight hours (Putra et al., 2018, p. 101). As it takes hours to make the dish, Balinese cooked the dish for special occasions only in the past, such as serving royal officials at home and undergoing rituals and ceremonies (Yanthy & Aryanti, 2019; Pitanatri, interview, March 16, 2023).
The experience of cooking traditional Balinese food and learning the philosophy and belief behind the dishes is offered by Balinese to foreign tourists in various gastronomic attractions, such as cooking classes. This class not only teaches them to cook, but also sheds light on Tri Hita Karana, the harmony principles to live well: harmony between people and God, harmony between people and nature, and harmony between people (Adityanandana &
Gerber, 2019; Roth & Sedana, 2015).
Figure 3. Tri Hita Karana
When speaking at the fifth edition of the UNWTO forum in Spain in 2019, Datau explained Tri Hita Karana as the driving force behind the Triangle Concept in the development of gastronomic tourism in Ubud (Basque Culinary Centre, 2019). Balinese embrace the principles for harmony in the human world (pawongan), the spiritual world (parahyangan), and the natural world (palemahan). To live in harmony with nature, for example, the Bali administration issued Gubernatorial Regulation (Pergub) No. 97/2018 to prohibit the use of single-use plastics (Basque Culinary Center, 2019). Meanwhile, food entrepreneurs implemented green principles by using bamboo for the construction of super and upper structures, sunlight for natural light, and wind for natural cooling in restaurants (Diatmika et al., 2017). According to UNWTO Project Specialist Aditya Amaranggana, Tri Hita Karana can add value to Ubud's gastronomic tourism (Dewabrata, 2019).
In the UNWTO forums, Datau also explained how the principle of harmony among people motivated business entities in Ubud, such as Visesa Ubud Resort and Locavore restaurant, to use local produce to support local communities and drive local economy.
Locavore even created the motto "Go Local or Go Home" to show the use of local farmers’
products (Basque Culinary Centre, 2019).
Before cooking, Balinese undergo rituals to live in harmony with the Gods. They perceive food as something precious, believing it comes from times of struggle and hunger.
Rice, for example, is not only a staple food for daily consumption, but also an offering for Gods. For them, rice field is an altar to Derieri, the Goddess of rice, fertility, and abundance (Dwyer, 2019).
In her gastrodiplomacy at the fifth edition of the UNWTO forum in 2019, Datau also communicated how the Government involved non-state actors to develop gastronomic tourism, from local communities known as Banjar to private companies, such as local wine producer Sababay. Banjar enforces Tri Hita Karana, while Sababay empowers local grape farmers by training them to produce high-quality grapes to increase income (Basque Culinary Centre, 2019). By communicating the contributions of the local players, Datau performed gastrodiplomacy as soft power to show UNWTO that the Government engaged non-state actors to make Ubud its pilot gastronomic destination.
Non-State Actors' Contributions to Ubud’s Bid to Become the UNWTO Prototype
Before Indonesia proposed Ubud to become the UNWTO prototype in 2019, gastronomic tourism in Ubud already developed, thanks to local culinary players, such as Sang Ayu Mangku, the owner of the Nasi Ayam Kedawetan Ibu Mangku restaurant, and Mudra Swari Saraswati Foundation, the initiator of the Ubud Food Festival. In developing Ubud's gastronomic tourism, these non-state actors also practised gastrodiplomacy on their initiatives by introducing and promoting Balinese culture, tradition, and history behind Balinese dishes to foreign tourists through various events in Ubud, such as Ubud Food Festival (Pitanatri, interview, March 16, 2023).
The events, which expose the connection between food, culture, and history in Ubud, help the town meet the criteria of the UNWTO prototype and show the organisation its readiness to receive the title. This readiness is important because it is the main point of UNWTO’s assessment. In June and August 2019, UNWTO conducted field observations and 600 interviews to assess Ubud. During this assessment, the organisation verified the inventory of gastronomic assets and attractions and interviewed all stakeholders, including non-state actors, such as chefs, academics, hoteliers, restaurant owners, food festival initiators, transportation providers, food and beverage producers, and local and foreign tourists (Datau, interview, March 12, 2023). The field observations and interviews allowed the non-state actors to practice gastrodiplomacy towards UNWTO by showing the organisation that gastronomic events set up and developed by the non-state actors in Ubud suited the criteria for its pilot gastronomic destination. In this sense, gastrodiplomacy carried out by the non-state actors during the assessment was soft power to influence UNWTO’s decision in an indirect way.
Figure 4. Calendar of Events in Ubud
Source: (BAPPENAS, 2021)
Such gastronomic attractions were written by academics in a report for the UNWTO assessment. They are part of a local team formed by the Ministry of Tourism for the project.
The academics are Putu Diah Sastri Pitanatri from Bali Tourism Polytechnic, Anak Agung Gede Raka from Warmadewa University, and I Nyoman Darma Putra, Ni Nyoman Sri Aryanti, and Putu Sucita Yanthy from Udayana University. To write the report, they curated, mapped and narrated Ubud’s gastronomic assets and attractions. They presented the report to UNWTO to assess the readiness of Ubud (Pitanatri, interview, March 16, 2023). It means that these academics are also non-state actors who practised gastrodiplomacy toward UNWTO by using the report to communicate the Balinese culture, history, and tradition behind Balinese cuisine in order to influence its decision.
Indonesia was upbeat about proposing Ubud to become the UNWTO prototype due to the long contributions of those non-state actors to Ubud’s gastronomic tourism development.
Following are some of the pioneers in the development of Ubud’s gastronomic tourism:
Ubud Food Festival
Mudra Swari Saraswati Foundation performs gastrodiplomacy through Ubud Food Festival.
The practice of gastrodiplomacy takes place in a way that the foundation sets up various programmes, such as food tour and masterclass, to make foreign audience aware of the cultural and historical values behind Balinese cuisine that they enjoy in the festival. With the Ubud Food Festival in place, gastrodiplomacy carried out by the foundation in the programmes is
soft power that indirectly shows UNWTO during its assessment that Ubud has met the standard criteria of its pilot gastronomic destination, such as the use of food as part of people’s lifestyle and the existence of culture, history, and local stories behind the food.
The cultural and historical values of Balinese food are shown by the foundation through the food tour. This programme enables participants to witness how food in Ubud merges with culture and history and how Balinese communicate the merge to them in various culinary spots they visit. In 2019, for example, local culinary guide I Komang Puriana took the participants of the food tour to visit Gianyar Market to taste babi guling (suckling pig) in restaurant Babi Guling Ibu Oka and bebek betutu (Balinese slow-cooked duck) in restaurant Kedai Ketut Rimpin. During the visit, they met the owners of the restaurants, A.A. Oka Sinar and Ketut Rimpin. They not only explained the position of food in their lifestyle and its cultural, spiritual, and philosophical meanings, but also showed their local produce and cooking methods (Ubud Food Festival, 2019). Food tour facilitates the Balinese culinary players to introduce the cultural and historical values of their dishes on their own and share local stories with foreign tourists.
Such gastrodiplomacy also occurred in other programmes, from talks, cooking demos, workshops, to masterclasses. The masterclass, for example, enables the visitors to gain knowledge and skill to make innovations from the bests of the industry, such as Benny Santoso, the founder of company Ini Tempe Bali, which produces tempeh cookies and chips. In the masterclass in 2018, he described the values of tempeh in Indonesian cuisine and the creative power behind his product. He shared how he got local produce and showed how he used his creativity to turn the local produce into cookies and chips (Agmasari, 2018).
Since 2015, Ubud Food Festival has become a renowned Indonesian culinary festival for giving foreign audiences an intercultural culinary adventure (Suntikul, 2019). As a gastronomic attraction, the festival attracts more tourists to visit Ubud and raises public awareness of the importance of preserving traditions and cultures. Ubud Food Festival also benefits local communities by promoting creativity, providing jobs and increasing income (Widayanthi et al., 2022).
Nasi Ayam Kedawetan Ibu Mangku
Chicken rice is the signature dish of restaurant Nasi Ayam Kedawetan Ibu Mangku. Founded in 1963 by Sang Ayu Mangku, this restaurant is known not only for its flavourful chicken rice, but also for the practice of its gastrodiplomacy to develop gastronomic tourism in Ubud.
Gastrodiplomacy takes place in a way that Nasi Ayam Kedawetan introduces Balinese culture, history, and local stories to foreign tourists through the chicken rice. Such practice of gastrodiplomacy is soft power for Ubud during the UNWTO assessment.
While serving customers, Mangku and her staff can describe the flavour, ingredients, and even the cultural and historical values behind the chicken rice, including its spices and side dishes, such as boiled egg, sate lilit (Balinese satay) and sayur urap (vegetable salad). For example, chicken slices that are served on chicken rice, which are derived from ayam betutu (Balinese slow-cooked chicken), are culturally valuable because betutu has an important role as an offering to Gods in religious and cultural ceremonies in Bali. Mangku and her staff are a storyteller at heart (Pitanatri, interview, March 16, 2023).
In her restaurant, Mangku pays attention not only to flavour and storytelling, but also to food hygiene. To ensure cleanliness, she requires her staff to wear gloves when they prepare and serve food. For sayur urap and other side dishes that can quickly reach the point where they are stale, they will start to cook the dish after customers order it to ensure that it is fresh and nutritious on the table (Pitanatri & Putra, 2016, p. 45). Nasi Ayam Kedawetan Ibu Mangku helped Ubud show UNWTO that the standard criteria to become its prototype have been met, such as the implementation of food hygiene, the use of local produce, and the storytelling of the culture, history, and local story behind the Balinese dish.
Paon Bali Cooking Class
Since 2009, Ni Wayan Puspawati and her husband, I Wayan Subawa, have practised gastrodiplomacy through Paon Bali Cooking Class in Laplapan Village. The class facilitates the practice of gastrodiplomacy to take place in a way that the couple introduces Balinese culture, tradition and history to foreign tourists by giving them the experience of preparing, cooking, and enjoying authentic Balinese foods in their kitchen. They teach their guests to cook Balinese soup, sate languan (fish satay cooked with green coconut and brown sugar), and sate lembat (crushed meat cooked with grated coconut). With the cooking class in place, Ubud has stronger soft power to pursue the UNWTO prototype title because gastrodiplomacy carried out by the couple in the cooking class is soft power that indirectly confirms the suitability of Ubud for the position during the UNWTO assessment.
Paon Bali is arguably one of the pioneers of cooking classes in Ubud. The idea of starting the cooking class came to his mind when his foreign guests complained Balinese dishes in the hotel because they did not taste authentic. He then offered them a complete gastronomic
experience at his house to taste authentic Balinese cuisine and learn to cook it from scratch.
Since then, his cooking class has developed (Pitanatri & Putra, 2016, p. 59).
The class first takes foreign tourists to a traditional market in the morning to observe the engagement of Balinese people in the buy-sell transaction. This visit also allows them to find local produce that they might not find in other cities, such as Balinese garlic kesuna and cooking oil lengis tanusan. Kesuna, which is smaller than other garlics, is a mandatory ingredient in Balinese food. If kesuna is replaced with other garlics, the Balinese food will taste different. In the market, they also get to know the origins of the local produce. Lengis tanusan, for example, is produced by the elderly in an environmentally friendly way. They grate coconut flesh into thick coconut milk. They then use firewood to boil the milk until it becomes an oily substance and leaves oil sediment called tlengis. The substance is used for cooking, while tlengis is used to make pesan tlengis, a steamed dish wrapped in a banana leaf (Pitanatri, interview, March 16, 2023). The coconut leaves are used as an offering in ceremonies, while the leaflets are used as brooms. The husk is used to make ropes, and the wood is used to make furniture (Mahendra, 2016). This visit enriches the tourists’ experiences as it shows them that every part of local produce is functional in Bali.
After the traditional market, Subawa takes foreign tourists to a rice field to explain the cultural and philosophical values of subak, a traditional ecologically sustainable irrigation system (Pitanatri & Putra, 2016, p. 62). For the Balinese, land comes from ancestors. Therefore, they perceive subak as heritage and uphold the traditional law called awig-awig to protect rice fields from any changes in land use (Sertori, 2013).
After the rice field, the foreign tourists return to Subawa's house to begin to cook the ingredients and learn traditional cooking techniques. In the kitchen, the couple teaches their guests to use traditional cooking utensils, such as cobek batu (stone mortar and pestle), and introduces Dharma Caruban as their cooking guideline. Dharma Caruban, which is a lontar about traditional Balinese cuisine passed down from generation to generation, contains recipes and information about the preparation and cooking of Balinese food, from mixing spices, cutting plants, to slaughtering animals (Pitanatri & Putra, 2016, p. 62; Putra et al., 2018, p. 66).
CONCLUSION
This research found that state and non-state actors had different approaches when implementing gastrodiplomacy as soft power to make Ubud the UNWTO prototype for a world gastronomic destination. Represented by Vita Datau from the Ministry of Tourism, the
Government used the Triangle Concept of Indonesian Gastronomy in her gastrodiplomacy strategy. The Triangle Concept enabled Datau to communicate the culture and history behind Balinese food in UNWTO forums. She showcased Balinese ceremonies and rituals to show the connection between food and culture in Ubud as well as explain Spice Trail to show the connection between food and history. She explained the connection between culture, history, and food in Ubud through gastrodiplomacy as soft power to make Ubud the UNWTO prototype.
Non-state actors performed gastrodiplomacy through food tours, festivals, and other gastronomic attractions. They set up such attractions as soft power to communicate Balinese cultural and historical values and local stories behind Balinese culinary delights to foreigners.
With the gastronomic attractions in place, they expected UNWTO to see that Ubud has ticked the conditions of its pilot gastronomic destination. The attractions contributed to the development of the sector, thanks to the non-state actors, such as Mudra Swari Saraswati Foundation, the founder of Ubud Food Festival. The gastronomic attractions of the non-state actors are soft powers to help the Government convince UNWTO that Ubud deserves the prototype title.
Indonesian gastrodiplomacy to obtain the approval of UNWTO for Ubud's gastronomic tourism has not only exposed Balinese cuisine on the international stage, but also drawn the attention of the foreign public to Indonesia's Spice Trail. This fact suits Lipscomb's statement that cuisine reflects a country's nostalgia for its past, but it can also become a medium to build its identity in the present.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I sincerely thank Bali Tourism Polytechnic lecturer Putu Diah Sastri Pitanatri and Indonesia Gastronomy Network chairman Vita Datau, who was the Head of Culinary and Shopping Tourism Acceleration Team at the Ministry of Tourism from 2016 to 2019, for the interview opportunity and literature.
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Note:
1The list was made by Institut Seni Indonesia Denpasar collaborating with Gianyar Trade Agency. The meat dishes written in the list are babi guling, bebek betutu, bebek guling, and ayam guling to name a few. The vegetable dishes include jukut nangka, jukut plecing, and jukut kelor. The beverages include tuak, loloh kunyit, and loloh cemcem to name a few. Meanwhile, cakes consist of traditional cakes, such as buntilan and jaja bantal; modern cakes, such as jaja kembang matahari and jaja roti bolu; and cakes for religious ceremonies, such as jaja sarad, jaja jerimpen, and jaja reta.