The development of the manual was led by Alison Bell CPE and Fiona Weigall CPE from the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Wollongong, Australia. dr. Brian Davies - University of Wollongong. Barbara McPhee, CPE, HFESA Fellow. Cara Gray, Metrographics.
COURSE OVERVIEW
- Introduction
- Aim of Course
- Learning Outcomes
- Format of Manual
This manual is specifically designed to follow the syllabus for this course as published by the BOHS. Likewise, the material in this guide is tailored to the presentations for each topic, so that students can follow the discussion on each topic.
OVERVIEW OF ERGONOMICS
General Principles
- Definition
- History of Ergonomics
- Scope of Ergonomics and Systems of Work
- Aims, Objectives and Benefits of Ergonomics
- Fitting the Job to the Person and Person to the Job,
- Systems of Work: Seeing the Whole Picture
- Human Characteristics, Capabilities and Limitations
- Human Error
- Teamwork
- Ageing
- The Role of the Ergonomist
In the workplace, ergonomics is applied to the layout of the workplace and tasks and to the organization of the work. Work organisation: the wider context of the organization and work and how this affects individuals.
Biological Ergonomics
- Body Systems
- The Musculoskeletal System
- Posture and Movement
- Biomechanics
- Anthropometry
- Applying Work Physiology: Body Metabolism, Work
Posture is the basis for movement and refers to the angular proportions of the body parts and the distribution of their mass. Movements in the outer region of the muscle or joint, heavy lifting, pushing or pulling (excessive force), prolonged (activity duration) or repetitive movements can lead to strain and fatigue and ultimately to injury.
Psychology at Work
- Perception and Cognition
- Memory
- Decision-making
- Perception of Risk
- Signal Detection Theory
- Vigilance
- Motivation and Behaviour
- Work „Stress‟ – Causes, Preventative and Protective
- Work Organisation – Shift Work and Overtime
- Rest and Work Breaks
From an ergonomic point of view, we must ensure that information is presented to the person at work in the most compatible way, so that it can be processed efficiently. Incorrect results can also be due to the signal itself - not obvious (see section on vision and hearing), 'muffled' by other 'noise' in the environment, such as other alarms, displays, lights, etc.; or the result of inadequate training or skill of the operator.
Developing an Ergonomics Strategy at Work
- Culture of an Organisation – Commitment and
- Macro-ergonomics and Participatory Ergonomic Teams
- Ergonomics at the Design Stage
- Developing Ergonomics, Professional Ergonomists and
- Seeing the Whole Picture
Responses vary based on a person's age, gender, education, and a variety of other personal and social factors. Consultation with workers is considered a necessary part of work organization and is covered by some occupational safety and health legislation in Australia. These teams are composed of employees from all levels and units of the organization to address macro and micro ergonomic issues with the aim of making good ergonomics part of the overall business strategy.
In addition, participatory ergonomics teams facilitate a process of continuous improvement that leads to strategic use of the teams within and across the business/organization. Design of equipment, workplaces and work systems requires design according to ergonomic specifications as well as the production of the output. In other words, we need to design for the largest percentage of the population, see Section 2.5.5.
A detailed description of the certification process and approaches can be found in "Fundamentals and Assessment Tools in Occupational Ergonomics".
ERGONOMICS METHODS & TECHNIQUES
Work Design
- Allocation of Functions
- Task Analysis
- Work Organisation Factors to Consider in Allocation of
- Problems Arising From Poor Work Design
- User Trials
- Problem Solving – Scientific Method
For Ergonomists, this last category is the one of importance, since the abilities and limitations of the human being in the system are of the greatest importance. A host of factors must be considered, covering the spectrum of the 3 domains of ergonomics, physical, cognitive and organizational. First, specification of the system purpose is undertaken, which identifies the tasks that must be completed to fulfill system function/purpose.
Workers are organized into groups and the planning and organization of the work and responsibility for the end product can be delegated to them. Environment: Level of lighting and noise, temperature, workstation design and human-machine interface. An individual's level of job satisfaction is often related to other aspects of the job, including working conditions.
It should be timed to coincide with the introduction of the devices and give people time to learn.
Ergonomics Risk Management
- Definitions of Hazards and Risk
- Ergonomics Risk Identification
- Ergonomics Risk Assessment
- Controlling Ergonomics Risks
- Priorities
- Evaluating Controls
Direct observation of workers, tasks and the workplace: for example, site inspections, walk through surveys, audits. To do this it is necessary to determine the possible severity of the risk and the possibility of a problem occurring, eg: prioritizing the risk management process. Severity of risk: nature of injuries and losses associated with the risk, cost of injuries/incidents or damages associated with the potential risk.
Work and individual factors that can contribute to risk: nature of the task, workload, work environment, work organization, training, individual skills. Evaluating the solution in action is often forgotten when people move on to solving the next problem. It is important that decisions are made by the people most likely to be affected, but they must be fully informed of the options, problems and benefits.
A risk assessment should always include a review to evaluate the effect of the process and the implementation of the solutions.
Measurements and Information Gathering
- Ergonomics Standards
- Methods of Information Gathering/Measurement
- Rating Scales, Questionnaires and Check Lists
There is a range of measures that can be used to quantify the physical and psychophysical strain on the body. Consequently, these techniques can be used in the prototype and operational stages of the design cycle. Rating scales, such as for observational techniques, can be used in the prototype and operational stages of the design cycle.
Questionnaires can be used to survey a potential population of users, or to survey an individual about a specific product, work procedure, etc. Questionnaires can be used to inform users' ease of use, satisfaction/dissatisfaction and views of a product/system. Once again, questionnaires can be used in the prototyping and operational aspects of the design cycle and provide a chance to "dig deeper" into user perceptions and inform design improvements.
While checklists can be adapted and modified for specific situations, it is important to gain an understanding of the checklist and how it has been used before.
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS
Manual Handling
- Introduction and Definition
- The Nature and Causes of Manual Handling Disorders
- Low Back Disorders
- Risk Assessment
- Job Design and Training
- Principles of Handling and Preventative and Protective
The majority of problems arising from manual handling are associated with sprains and strains mainly of the back and neck. Nevertheless, in most people, symptoms and signs develop over many years, and it is unlikely that the precipitating event is the cause of the disorder – musculoskeletal injuries are cumulative in nature. a) The spine. There are four fixed vertebrae at the lower end of the coccyx known as the coccyx.
Risk assessment processes can be simple or detailed (ISO Ergonomics Manual Handling Part 1,2,3), depending on the complexity of the issue under investigation. Alternative techniques are provided in checklist and chart formats such as that of the HSE in the form of Manual Handling Assessment Charts (MAC) and the National Standard for Manual Tasks, 2007 with its accompanying document, the National Code of Practice for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Disorders from Performing Manual Tasks at Work (2007) (Australian Safety and Compensation Commission). This uses the ratio of the load to be lifted to the recommended weight limit as calculated from the equation.
For a more complete review of the entire task, it is recommended to use the risk assessment in the Australian guidance material or the Manual Handling Assessment Chart (MAC) developed by the HSE in the UK.
Work-Related Upper Limb Disorders (WRULD)
- The Nature and Causes of WRULD/Repetitive Strain
- Risk Assessment
- Principles of Control, Preventive and Protective Measures
Let us now examine the structure of the upper limb; it consists of the hand, wrist, forearm, upper arm and shoulder. It does not have intrinsic strength or mechanical strength as the muscles of the hand are very small and adapted for fine movements and precision. The hand is a delicate and highly complex machine at the end of a highly flexible lever on a mobile body, but its ability to perform depends to some extent on the rest of the body.
Where the shoulder or trunk cannot be positioned for optimal movement of the hand, all three areas can suffer tension. This possibility must be considered in relation to the physical layout of work or the demands of the task. An alternative and extremely useful tool for assessing the risk of WRULD in the workplace is that of the HSE in the UK.
The HSE risk assessment worksheet focuses on the key risk factors of recurrence; working posture for each of the upper limb body segments; force; work environment; psychosocial factors and individual differences.
WORKPLACE, JOB & PRODUCT DESIGN
Work Environment
- Principles of Workplace and Work Systems Design
- Workstation & Equipment Design
- Tools
- Chairs and Seating
- Vehicle Cabs
The head must be able to be held upright with the backrest of the seat in accordance with the curve of the lumbar spine. Any maneuvers necessary to operate the machine should be able to be performed safely and without undue fatigue or discomfort. Monitoring should be carried out to ensure the adequacy of the design and maintenance of the operator's space.
The site should be able to accommodate about 97% of all operators (accommodating population extremes, too small and too large can be expensive and unnecessary). For great speed and accuracy the hand should be close and in front of the body. Distortions created by curved mirrors should be brought to the operator's attention and additional training may be required.
Similarly, light fixtures should be at right angles to the screen and to each side of the user.
Information, Displays & Controls
- Design Principles For Displays & Controls
- Information & Displays
- Danger and Information Signals
- Controls
- Principles of Software Ergonomics
PHYSICAL FACTORS OF THE WORK ENVIRONMENT
Vision & Lighting
- The Eye & Visual Capabilities
- Lighting For Work
Noise
- Ears & Hearing
- Noise
Thermal Environment
- Work in Hot or Cold Environments
- Measuring the Effect of Heat and Cold
When sitting, there must be sufficient space between the underside of the worktop and the seat for the legs and for movement. Opportunities to sit or stand during the day, preferably as part of the job, should also be included. In some cases, the status of the equipment can be communicated to the operator through some kind of display. a) Handles.
Visibility must be sufficient to see people, obstacles and the condition of the work area (the road, objects or materials being moved) which may be critical to the operation or to safety. The functional position is with the thumb up and the palm facing inwards. Blind spots should be reduced to a minimum and where they remain they should be brought to the attention of the operator and others in the area.
Misinterpretation of information should be minimized by the design of the sight glass/meter, which should be easy to clean.
Vibration
- Hand-Transmitted Vibration
- Whole Body Vibration
Smell, Taste & Tactile Senses
- Olfactory (Smell) Ability & Taste
- Skin & Touch
Clothing & Protective Equipment
- Introduction
- Risk Perception and PPE Use
- IS EN13921:2007: Personal Protective Equipment -
STANDARDS & SOCIAL ASPECTS
Standards
Training, Experience and Skill Development
- Acquisition of Physical Skills
- Skill Development and Individual Differences
- Training Needs Analysis
- Types of Training
- Education and Training in Ergonomics
Health Information
- Health Information, Legal Duty of Care
- Supervision and Records
- Measuring Health and Illness
Measuring the Impact of Ergonomics
- Positive Performance Indicators (PPIs)
- Negative Performance Indicators (NPIs)
- Injury/illness Rates
- Program Evaluation
- Strategic Planning
- Key Performance Indicators
- Program Audits
- Accident and Incident Investigation
- Cost-Benefit Models
