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Legal Studies on EU Policies: Why Labour Migration Status as a Binary
Nguyen Thuy Anh1
1University of Debrecen, Hungary, Email: [email protected] Submitted: May 15, 2022; Reviewed: March 27, 2023; Accepted: April 03, 2023.
Article Info Abstract
Keywords:
EU, Human Rights, Laws, Migrant, Policies, Workers
DOI:
10.25041/fiatjustisia.v17no2.2599
In the framework of the post-Covid-19 pandemic, Europe is facing two problems in terms of migrant workers: a shortage of agricultural production workers in some countries and the "coercive acceptance" of undocumented migrant workers.
Most EU countries are in a state of economic recovery after the pandemic, so production activities need to be restored at a reasonable cost.
However, the aging population in some European countries is forcing governments to hire foreign workers at high costs. To balance the needs in the economic calculation, irregular migrant workers are considered a suitable temporary solution.
Besides, reopening diplomatic programs with strategic partner countries is extremely urgent.
Therefore, the question of reducing illegal migration without building an iron wall in diplomacy is remarkable. In this context, the author based on the analysis of EU policy for migrant workers and based on the case of Spain and the methodology applied to answer research questions will be based on comparison qualitative research. I focus on analyzing the concept between illegal and irregular migration from the perspective of human rights law and humanitarian factors. In addition, there are aspects of migrant workers in some EU legal documents to protect the rights of migrant workers and their families.
A. Introduction
Since developing nations frequently have difficulty satisfying even the most basic requirements of their citizens due to infrastructure and resource shortages, there is a greater risk that migrants will be ignored in these nations. The EU has started a reform process to handle this issue, intending to secure its external borders by strengthening the connections between
ISSN: 1978-5186 | e-ISSN: 2477-6238.
http://jurnal.fh.unila.ac.id/index.php/fiat
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control and control. Security at the borders, reestablishing international collaboration on migration.1
Several factors make europe a popular destination for migrants:
environmental causes, social and political factors, economic and demographic considerations, and the new EU migration accord.
Metropolitan locations are more likely than other types of areas to employ migrants. Due to rising housing and other costs, these concentrated migration patterns strain the "receiving" regions, making inclusivity difficult to maintain. This leads to complicated interactions between cities and their functional regions.
There is research about irregular workers in the EU, such as ―Irregular Migrant Domestic Workers in Europe‖ by Maykel Verkuyten, ―Illegal, legal, irregular or regular who is the incoming foreigner‖ by Magdalena Perkowska but reference to the definition of illegal or irregular at all. The author focuses on the distinction between illegal, unauthorized or irregular migrant workers in the framework of EU policies and the case of seasonal migrant workers in Spain to answer why the nations need to keep the binary status of migrant labor.
The Normative Juridical Approach is carried out by studying the principles, regulations and laws that apply to the legal issues to be discussed.
Normative legal research will be a process to find legal rules, principles, and doctrines to answer the legal issues at hand. In this type of legal research, often the law is conceptualized as what is written in laws and regulations or the law is conceptualized as rules or norms that follow the sense of justice in society.
Literature Study is a procedure for collecting data by searching, reading, studying, understanding, and quoting various literature related to the problems discussed in this study in the form of applicable laws and regulations, law books, articles, journals, jurisprudence, and court decisions that have permanent legal force and also other legal materials.2
The novelty of this research is analyzing EU policies for migrant workers based on the Spanish case and the methodology applied to answer the research questions will be based on comparative qualitative research. I focus on analyzing the concept between illegal and irregular migration from the perspective of human rights law and humanitarian factors. This is based on EU laws and regulations that set the framework for policies that view immigrant status as binary.
1 Adrian Favell and Randall Hansen, ―Markets Against Politics: Migration, EU Enlargement and the Idea of Europe,‖ Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 28, no. 4 (2002): 581–601.
2 Depri Liber Sonata, ―Metode Penelitian Hukum Normatif Dan Empiris:
Karakteristik Khas Dari Metode Meneliti Hukum,‖ Fiat Justitia:Jurnal Ilmu Hukum 8, no. 1 (2015).
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B. Discussion
1. Legal Studies on Migrant Workers a. Legal Basis
It should be noted that Article 3(2) of the Treaty on European Union (TEU), which outlines the main goals of the EU, places more emphasis on the construction of an area of freedom, security, and justice (AFSJ). Articles 67 through 89 of Title V of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) are allocated to the AFSJ. AFSJ creation is intrinsically related to additional stipulations and those mentioned above. Freedom, security measures to prevent and combat crime, and access to justice in civil affairs are the three goals of the AFSJ, as stated in Article 67 of the TFEU.
One of the challenges these fundamental concerns encounter is ambiguity.
The agreement specifies that the EU will develop a comprehensive immigration policy that will consistently and successfully manage migration flows, treating all legally residing third-country nationals (TNCs) residing in member states equally. In addition to management, fighting against human trafficking and illegal immigration includes prevention and more forceful measures. Authorities seem to assume that this distinguishes between legal and illegal immigration. EU policy must have more defined goals.3
The AFSJ guarantees that foreign nationals will be treated "fairly"
throughout TEFU. Testing the effects of immigration and immigration status controls on migrants and refugees is essential for fulfilling this promise. It's debatable how migrants should be treated equitably. The management of immigrants "lawfully residing in the Member States" (who are treated fairly) must be coordinated, and "anti-illegal immigration" means must be implemented. I have just intimated that migrants, given their lack of political leverage and social protection will find it difficult to access human rights and the nation-state.4
Irregular migration is a global topic that currently occupies a central position on the agenda of the European Union. The South-North migration, and the operational migratory flow after the conflict between Ukraine and Russia, are reasons for publishing Global Compact for Migration (GCM).
Migrant workers are becoming a global issue in any country, not just the EU.
Illegal migration as a concept covers several rather different issues.5 The ones that stand out the most are foreigners entering a country illegally, a foreigner staying beyond their permitted period of entry andor residence, or
3 Christina Boswell, ―Migration in Europe,‖ in The Politics of Migration (Routledge, 2018), 91–110.
4 Franck Düvell, ―Clandestine Migration in Europe,‖ Social Science Information 47, no. 4 (2008): 479–97.
5 Martina Tazzioli and William Walters, ―Migration, Solidarity and the Limits of Europe,‖ Global Discourse: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Current Affairs 9, no. 1 (2019):
175–90.
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a non-citizen working illegally or in a way that goes against their immigration status.6
b. Migrant Workers Illegal, Unauthorized, or Irregular?
There is no consensus among scientific notions of border crossing concerning illegal migration. Human rights activists maintain that no one can be considered a criminal. The terms "undocumented migrant" and
"undocumented migrant" are synonymous. Immigration is classified as legal or illegal mainly based on national laws. Persons who have violated the rights or laws of the country they fled (their country of origin or a transit country) may also be classified as illegal immigrants. The International Convention for the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Their Family Members (ICRMW) is a fundamental treaty ratified by numerous nations, particularly those in the Southern Hemisphere. Therefore, policies and laws in those countries are concerned with migration, even illegal labor. Different terms, including "illegal immigrant," "irregular immigrant," "undocumented immigrant," "undocumented person," and
"secret immigrants," are used in various discussions (Secret Spanish).7 However, the adjective "illegal" is thought to be problematic because it implies crime and has negative implications. In its 2006 "Special Communication on policy priorities in the Battle against illegal migration of Third-country Nationals," COM (2006), the European Commission chose to define the term "illegal migration" to prevent it. According to the notice, illegal immigrants who are citizens of third countries trespass into a Member State's territory via land, water, or air (including air transit of that country).8 This frequently occurs due to the use of fictional or fake passports and coordinated criminal networks engaged in migrant trafficking and smuggling. The term "covert migrants" (also known as "undocumented or migrant in unusual situation") includes people who have legally entered the transit or host country but have remained for a long time or have gone on to work illegally afterward. The term ―irregular‖ is more appropriate than
―illegal‖ because it carries criminal connotations and is seen as negating the
―humanity‖ of migrants.9
I believe the term "illegal migration" or "undocumented migration" is more suitable for describing the phenomenon of migration that violates legal rules. I believe that temporary movement frequently occurring in border regions is called "irregular migration." Because immigrants lack formal
6 Elspeth Guild, The Legal Elements of European Identity: EU Citizenship and Migration Law (Kluwer Law International B.V., 2004).
7 Perkowska, ―Illegal, Legal, Irregular or Regular – Who Is the Incoming Foreigner?‖ 9.
8 David Dorn and Josef Zweimüller, ―Migration and Labor Market Integration in Europe,‖ Journal of Economic Perspectives 35, no. 2 (2021): 49–76.
9 Floya Anthias and Gabriella Lazaridis, Gender and Migration in Southern Europe: Women on the Move (Routledge, 2020). 23.
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documentation attesting to their residence in the destination country, there have been numerous efforts to standardize the language used to refer to foreign nationals who enter or remain in countries unlawfully, but none of these terms are in widespread usage. They have simple access to workers with few restrictions.
Although the role of EU law is formulated, the binary between legal and illegal is a question in notions. Based on various legal authorities, various actors (legislative, executive, or judiciary) may impact the change in status or status (domestic, EU, or even human rights-based, for instance, under the ECHR). Because of this overlap in law, the combined structure of legal and illegal becomes hazy, presenting a site of contestation. Even naming the phenomenon of ―illegal migration‖ is fraught.10
The words "unusual" and "undocumented" are used by the researchers.
To prevent the negative connotation of illegality, use the terms "covert" or
"illegal" immigration to describe various migration patterns. For instance, in the EU, emigration and the presence of EU citizens in other EU countries are permitted with domestic approval, which is merely indicative and does not create those rights.11 It is acknowledged as a right for all EU citizens to move within the EU to live and work for a fee. The word "illegal" thus refers to much more than just the situation of EU citizens.
In its largest and most relevant interpretation, irregularity applies to various liminal statuses. According to the commission's communication, overstayers and illegal immigrants are living in the EU. Many immigrants occasionally find themselves in limited compliance with immigration laws.
They could rely on employers or sponsors to maintain their legal standing at someone else's request. It would seem reasonable and logical to treat asylum seekers as ordinary temporary migrants while their requests for international protection are being reviewed. The government and the ECHR (European Court of Human Rights) recognize that they may be viewed as "unauthorized entrants" for some purposes and, in some cases held on that basis, even if EU legislation supports that position.
The term "irregular" is frequently used in international contexts to denote a presence inconsistent with domestic legal or illegal presence evaluations.
For instance, the Global Commission on International Migration12 and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families all employ the term ―irregular.‖
While some conventions use the term "illegal" in specific contexts, the
10 Elspeth Guild, Who Is an Irregular Migrant? (Brill Nijhoff, 2004)https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047406051_004.
11 Eugenio Cusumano, ―Migrant Rescue as Organized Hypocrisy: EU Maritime Missions Offshore Libya Between Humanitarianism and Border Control,‖ Cooperation and Conflict 54, no. 1 (2019): 3–24.
12 See GCIM, ―Migration in an Interconnected World: New Directions for Action- Report of the Global Commission on International Migration‖, 10/2005
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International Labor Organization (ILO) frequently uses the term "irregular migration" in policy documents. The EU, in contrast, employs the term
―illegal immigration‖ with a vengeance.13
There was no EU-wide definition of "illegal" or "irregular" immigration, nevertheless, before the implementation of the Return Directive (RD) in December 2008 and the Employer Sanctions Directive (ESD) in June 2009.
Indeed, as will be discussed in Part V.2, those measures reflect shared competence over admissions because they combine elements from the EU and the country. The EU's extensive institutional work has combined in the struggle against "illegal immigration" despite the lack of a universal legal definition. In this sense, "illegal" migration is both a distinct institution and a sub-phenomenon of immigration and citizenship law.14
2. The EU Policy on Labor Migration: The Case of Seasonal Migration in Spain
a. Agriculture Seasonal Migrant Workers in Spain
The covid-19 crisis has resulted in border closures in countries, affecting the mobility of seasonal workers. Some countries with a mainly agricultural labor sector have fallen into labor shortages, facing the trouble of unsecured labor efficiency and rising production costs. Spain has one of the fastest- aging societies in the world, with the average age increased by four years in the last decade alone. This labor shortage threatens to undermine Spain's post-COVID economic recovery. There are no workers to undertake EU- funded recovery projects, leading to calls from industry associations on
―transnational mobility.‖ Spain needs foreign workers, even if unemployment is high. The example of Huelva and Lleida are the most significant in Spain in terms of temporary workers‘ schemes. According to the Department of Climate Action, Food and Rural Agenda, the production of sweet fruit has decreased to nearly 30% (data of October 2021).15
In Huelva, the projects of AENEAS (2004-2006) and MARES I & II (2010-2013) took place as an initiative of the City Council of Cartaya and the EU to implement temporary workers‘ schemes.16 This way, co- development, reducing illegal immigration, and meeting economic necessities are reached. The Foundation of Foreign Workers of Huelva (Fundación de Trabajadores Extranjeros de Huelva, FUTEH), founded in
13 The term ‗illegal immigration‘ is not unanimously used among EU institutions, however. See, e.g European Parliament, Report on the proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing the Asylum and Migration Fund.
14 Leonie Ansems De Vries and Elspeth Guild, ―Seeking Refuge in Europe:
Spaces of Transit and the Violence of Migration Management,‖ Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45, no. 12 (2019): 2156–66.De Vries and Guild.
15 https://agricultura.gencat.cat/ca/departament/estadistiques/agricultura/avancos- mensuals-produccions-agricoles/.
16 Berta Güell and Blanca Garcés-Mascareñas, Agricultural Seasonal Workers in Times of Covid-19 in Spain, 2020.
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2007, also played a role in the selection process and accompanying Moroccan women while they were living in Spain.17
At the end of July 2022, Spain approved a package of reforms to reduce production costs, emphasizing flexibility and transparency in visa conditions. Formalizing procedures and incorporating better responsiveness to labor market trends have greatly improved migrant workers. Spain's GECCO program, the country's main seasonal worker program, promises many changes in process reform. The reform introduced a four-year multiple-work permit allowing workers to stay and work in Spain for up to nine months per year instead of a short-term work permit valid only for the duration of the visa of seasonal contracts. If workers follow the rules, they can extend their work permit for another four years or switch to a two-year work and residence permit.
In most countries in the EU, seasonal workers are only granted a short- term work permit of up to 9 months, after which the worker must apply for a new visa each year. This is quite a hindrance for migrant workers, creating uncertainty for the future. Renewals often cause difficulties and complications for employers as they have to try to re-hire workers they have previously trained or look for new untrained workers. The length of employment on a Spanish work visa can have more positive effects as workers are reduced in administrative costs, maintaining a stable legal status, thereby reducing labor costs and reducing the consequences of illegal labor (employees do not comply with legal administration to maintain their existing jobs). In addition, employers will also benefit from increased productivity as workers build skills and experience over the seasons. The government will reduce public budget costs if there are fewer annual visa renewals.
Besides reforms in work visa procedures, labor mobility is key to reducing illegal migration. If large-scale and orderly labor migration routes are not built to meet global labor demand, illegal services of migrant labor will continue to grow, attracting risky migrants. Mobility often leads to illegal work arrangements. Collectively, well-run and well-functioning labor mobility systems can provide alternatives to irregular routes, reduce migrant smuggling, and meet critical labor market needs. Spain and Latin America provide examples of effective labor mobility partnerships. With about a third of the population living in poverty and many national economies in the region unable to generate enough stable, quality jobs, Latin American migration has nearly tripled in the past 30 years.18
17 Rutvica Andrijasevic, ―The Difference Borders Make: Legality, Migration and Trafficking in Italy Among Eastern European Women in Prostitution,‖ in Uprootings/Regroundings Questions of Home and Migration (Routledge, 2020), 251–71.
18 https://lampforum.org/2023/03/28/spains-upcoming-eu-presidency-a-chance-to- boost-implementation-of-efficient-migration-pathways/
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Labor mobility is a brilliant example of a solution to the relationship between Spain and Latin America that has become a new example consisting of new programs, projects, legal regimes, and migration management mechanisms. Expansion of the GECCO program to several chosen countries in the region could demonstrate a well-managed migration consciousness- stimulating approach. Such mobility also leads to general economic benefits (agricultural wages in Spain can triple workers' income), which is not the case with traditional local development programs. Cooperation between Spain and Latin America could inspire better labor mobility solutions in other EU countries facing similar labor challenges. It can also encourage the EU to expand its strategic partnership on labor mobility
b. The EU Protection on Migration Labor
The EU policy on labor migration published its proposal for a directive on migration for ―highly qualified employment‖ on 23 October 2007.
―Higher "Higher education qualification" refers to any degree, diploma, or other certificate issued by a competent authority attesting to the successful completion of a higher education program, specifically a set of courses offered by an educational institution recognized as a higher educational institution by the State in which it is located.
This implies that the member states must recognize the institutions' certifications from third countries. This is an essential component of what constitutes a highly qualified immigrant. An important tool for enhancing the viability of welfare systems in EU nations and ensuring the long-term expansion of the EU economy is properly managed migration. Due to increasing automation of processes, aging populations, and declining birth rates, the EU needs new workers with new skills. By enticing talent, the EU can change admissions better to suit the needs of Member States' labor markets.
Third-country nationals' entry and residence conditions for research, study, training, volunteering, or student exchange programs or projects are regulated by Directive (EU) 2016/801. According to a regulation, researchers and students have the right to stay for at least nine months after completing a course or studies to seek employment or start a business, allowing EU member states to take advantage of the opportunity to find foreign workers. In addition, researchers are allowed to bring their families with them. In 2017, 529 994 initial permits were issued on academic grounds. In reality, many low-skilled migrant workers continue to work for lower wages in domestic or part-time jobs such as domestic help, factory workers, or other jobs. Otherwise notice. However, a significant part of this movement is illegal, and far too many people are fleeing their homes as refugees. High-skilled immigration is largely legal as long as demand exceeds supply, while low-skilled immigration remains illegal.
Although the EU has promised to add provisions to protect individual migrant workers or their families, the law on migrant workers in the EU
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Code is not particularly detailed regarding processes. According to a 2018 study by EPRS, the implementation of a specific set of entry provisions in European countries that are part of the Schengen area will lead to improved immigration control, as well as better planning and coordination of post- entry immigration procedures. In addition, the EU's participation will reduce costs (in terms of human lives, smuggling and illegal trafficking, border control and migration, and containment). According to the text, this will ensure the development of a comprehensive management system for the EU's external borders, in line with fundamental rights.
This is a crucial issue today, dominated by the Covid 19 war and the conflict between Russia and Ukraine. Many workers migrate to other countries of their own accord without realizing it. Resettlement is about selecting and relocating legitimate immigrants from one nation to another.
Also, between April 2016 and December 2018, more than 18,000 Syrian migrants were resettled from Turkey under the EU-Turkey Declaration. I understand that the Erasmus program offers a variety of projects and scholarships for students and workers.19
The European Commission advocates public and private funding programs based on the Canadian model as a possible strategy for safe EU accession. Despite a clear definition at the EU level, funding means that a person, group, or organization is responsible for providing money and social support to a person or family who has been resettled within a certain period.
The aim is to reduce the possibility of losing control outside the system while promoting social integration and security to reduce the number of mistaken arrivals. Although there are no EU partners, several Member States have launched public and private funding initiatives with donors bearing the bulk of the costs. Although such schemes have existed in the past in up to 14 countries, only Italy, France, and Belgium have attempted humanitarian corridors, according to the latest book. Without government involvement, humanitarian corridors enable an immediate, rapid response to protect those in need. A sponsor provides short-term travel, accommodation, settlement, and integration support; in this case, the sponsor is a social movement organization such as a religious group.
One of the main pillars of the EU's external policy is regional agreements or agreements with third countries that use trade, investment, and development finance mechanisms to build strong partnerships. The EU hopes to promote long-term growth and development in partner countries by strengthening the link between migration and policy development. For example, by improving the quality of life of local people, simplifying visa processes, increasing legal mobility, and promoting trade. The re-entry and
19 Taulant Guma and Rhys Dafydd Jones, ―‗Where Are We Going to Go Now?‘
European Union Migrants‘ Experiences of Hostility, Anxiety, and (Non‐) Belonging During Brexit,‖ Population, Space and Place 25, no. 1 (2019): 2198.
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repatriation of unauthorized immigrants are also facilitated through this cooperation, which also contributes to reducing migration flows. In addition, there are ways to address the persistent labor shortage in the EU. The "EU- Turkey Declaration" of 18 March 2016 is said to have severely curtailed the traffickers' business model and improved administrative cooperation while assisting migrants in entering Turkey. This is the best-known example of cooperation with countries outside the EU and the EU.
There are several documents, including hard law and soft law about migration, but almost all Asia countries tend to endorse the soft law. Not at all the declaration or treaty between a nation and EU like the EU-Turkey Declaration. A huge amount of undocumented labor comes from developing countries such as Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, etc. For example, in Vietnam, the authorities have been doing the GMC Compact about migration but not the ICRMW- a binding treaty. This is quite obvious to other countries in Asia.
C. Conclusion
EU legislation and regulations establish a framework for a policy that views immigrant status as a binary. This search term has multiple purposes as a legal designation and an analytical framework. Although the "binary structure" of legal epistemology is typical, claiming that the law can only understand human behavior regarding its legality or illegality would be an overstatement. The EU determines the requirements for legitimate admission and residence concerning normal immigration. Member states continue to have the authority to regulate the number of applicants from outside the EU who are admittedThe majority of unlawful migrant workers face problems with their residency status despite EU policies concerned with migratory workers and numerous regulations on the labor movement.
Therefore, ―illegal‖ migration still exists in the labor migration market.
Solving this ―binary‖ of migrant labor by controlling a quantity of high-skill labor but low-labor managing as a wide gap in the EU and many other counties. In my opinion, many authorities want to endorse their legal system by restricting the migrants who enter their nations because they don‘t want to limit the sovereignty‘s rights. I know several documents, including binding and non-binding concerning migrant workers elements, even the illegal migrants, which the UN promulgates. One of the solutions that can control the undocumented flows is that ratify one of the hard laws like ICMRW. The migrant workers status is binary because international integration in labor and controlling irregular workers need to occur simultaneously. The measures taken by Spain are quite consistent with the current situation of migrant workers. The government's direct actions on the extension of work visas as well as cooperation with expansion partners have solved two major problems: reducing illegal migrant workers and expanding strategic partnerships on labor mobility.
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