1
HISTORY OF URBANIZATION IN THE WORLD: BACK GROUND STUDIES FOR STUDY OF ENERGY EFFICIENT DESIGN STRATERGIES FOR
BUILIDING CLUSTERS IN HOT & DRY CLIMATE
Dr. RITU SINGH1, Dr. MADHURA YADAV2
1PhD. Scholar, school of architecture , Manipal University, Jaipur.
2PhD. Guide, Director, school of architecture, Manipal University, Jaipur.
Abstract- This paper examines with the origin, growth, and present rate of progress of urbanization in the world. The history of urban planning starts as early as 4000 B.C and the peak is not yet sight in the contemporary trends of planning. The ancient world cities were small and had to be supported by much larger rural population. “Today a larger population lives in the cities, developed only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The process of urbanization has moved rapidly in the entire world since 1800. The rate of Urbanization is contributing by an increase in rate of the underdeveloped areas, substandard living and Environmental degradation.
The background ground studies shall overview the origin of a city from the very beginning to its complex systems, as it seems today worldwide. It shall then be concluded that to what an extent the present day trends of suburbs planning in India deal with the aspect of energy efficiency.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cities are probably the most complex things that human beings have ever created. They are the wellsprings of culture, technology, wealth and power. People have a love-hate relationship with cities. We are torn between our needs for community and privacy and the conflicting attractions of urban and rural life.
Urban Planning can be defined as the design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form, economic functions, and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of different activities within it. The various fields that are encountered in urban planning are:
The need of the hour is sustainable development. With increasing population and growing pollution, we can‟t ignore the ill effects of planning on the environment.
Sustainable development refers to:-
Utilizing the present resources keeping in mind the future needs of the society, so as not to exhaust the resources.
It should not disturb the ecological cycle and hence preserve the environment.
1.1 The rise and History of urbanization
the dawn of urbanization
the birth of a village
the birth of a city
4 early river valley civilization (mesopotamia,egyptian,harrap an,china)
greek towns
roman towns
middle ages towns
renaissance towns
industrial towns
modern towns and cities
2 Primitive societies had a culture but had no physical civilization. Tent, caves and huts were the only means of living together for defensive & social reasons.
The Neolithic population density was therefore not a matter of town concentration but rather a matter of tiny villages scattered over the land. The diverse technological innovations constituting Neolithic culture were necessary for the existence of settled communities.
Between 6000 and 4000 B.C. certain inventions-such as the ox-drawn plow and wheeled cart, the sailboat, metallurgy, irrigation, and the domestication of new plants -facilitated, when taken together, a more intensive and more productive use of the Neolithic elements themselves. When this enriched technology was utilized in certain unusual regions where climate, soil, water, and topography were most favorable (broad river valleys with alluvial soil not exhausted by successive cropping, with a dry climate that minimized soil leaching, with plenty of sunshine, and with sediment-containing water for irrigation from the river itself), the result was a sufficiently productive economy to make possible the sine qua non of urban existence, the concentration in one place of people who do not grow their own food.
The first cities, doubtless small and hard to distinguish from towns, seem to have appeared in the most favorable places some-time between 6000 and 5000 B.c. From that time on, it can be assumed that some of the inventions which made larger settlements possible were due to towns and cities themselves-viz., writing and accountancy, bronze, the beginnings of science, a solar calendar, bureaucracy.
By 3000 B.C., when these innovations were all exercising an influence in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India, there were in existence what may be called "true"
cities. After that there appears to have been, for some 2,000 years, a lull during which the most important innovations, toward the end of the period, were alphabetic writing and the smelting of iron. Curiously, the cities in the regions where city life had originated eventually went into eclipse, and it was not until Greco-Roman times that new principles made possible, in new regions, a marked
gain in city existence. There is no doubt that the religio-magical traditionalism of the early cities was profound.
The sites of the earliest "cities"
themselves show that they were small affairs. The walls of ancient Babylon, for example, embraced an area of very roughly 3.2 square miles,' and "Ur, with its canals, harbors, and temples, occu- pied some 220 acres; the walls of Erech en-compass an area of just on two square miles."' This suggests that the famous Ur could hardly have boasted more than 5,000 inhabitants and Erech hardly more than 25,000. The mounds of Mohenjo-daro in Sind cover a square mile,' and Harappa in the Punjab had a walled area visible in 1853 with a perimeter of 22 miles.? These were evidently "cities" of 5,000-15,000 inhabit-ants, yet they were the chief centers for the entire Indus region, an area nearly two-thirds the size of Texas.
Less is known about the earliest Egyptian cities, for they were built with mud bricks and have long since disappeared beneath the alluvial soil.
Tell el 'Amarna, the temporary capital built much later, about 1400 B.c., perhaps held something like 40,000 people. The wall of Hotep-Sanusert, an earlier capital built about 1900 B.c. on the Fayum, measured 350 by 400 meters' and enclosed an area of approximately one-twentieth of a square mile. Thebes, at the height of its splendor as the capital of Egypt about 1600, was de-scribed by Greek writers as having a circumference of 14 miles.
By a liberal estimate it may have contained 225,000 inhabitants .Even the largest cities prior to 1000 B.C. were small by modern standards.
The size of the early cities was therefore limited by the amount of food, fibers, and other bulky materials that could be obtained from the immediate hinterland by labor-intensive methods, a severe limitation which the Greek cities of a later period, small as they remained, nevertheless had to escape before they could attain their full size.
There were political limitations as well. The difficulty of communication and trans-port and the existence of multifarious local tribal cultures made the formation of large national units virtually impossible. The first urban- centered units were city-states, and
3 when so-called "empires" were formed, as in Egypt, in the Sumerian region, and later in Assyria, much local autonomy was left to the subordinated areas, and the constant danger of revolt prevented the extension of the hinterlands of the cities very far or very effectively. It is symptomatic of the weakness of the early cities that they were constantly threatened and frequently conquered not only by neighboring towns but also by nonurban barbarians.
Other limiting factors were the lack of scientific medicine (which made urban living deadly), the fixity of the peasant on the land (which minimized rural-urban migration), the absence of large-scale manufacturing (which would have derived more advantage from urban concentration than did handicraft), the bureaucratic control of the peasantry (which stifled free trade in the hinterland), and the traditionalism and religiosity of all classes (which ham- pered technological and economic advance). The limitations explain why we find, when the sites furnish adequate evidence, that the earliest cities were small affairs, usually no more than towns. Whether in the new or in the old world, even the biggest places could scarcely have exceeded 200,000 inhabitants, and the proportion of the total population living in them must have been not more than 1 or 2 per cent. From 50 to 90 farmers must have been required to support one man in a city.
The region that saw a later and greater urban development was farther north, the Greco-Roman world of Europe, flourishing approximately during the period from 600 B.C. to 400 A.D.
Iron tools and weapons, alphabetic writing, improved sailboats, cheap coinage, more democratic institutions, systematic colonization-all tended to increase production, stimulate trade, and expand the effective political unit.
Towns and cities became more numerous, the degree of urbanization greater. A few cities reached a substantial size. Athens, at its peak in the fifth century B.C., achieved a population of between 120,-000 and 180,000. Syracuse and Carthage were perhaps larger.
The full potentialities of the ancient world to support a large city were realized only with the Romans.
Through their ability to conquer, organize, and govern an empire, to put the immediate Italian hinter-land to frutiful cultivation, to use both force and trade to bring slaves, goods, food, and culture to the imperial capital, they were able to create in Rome (with the possible exception of Constantinople some cen- turies later) the largest city that was to be known in the world until the rise of London in the nineteenth century. Yet, despite the fact that Rome and Constantinople came to hold populations of several hundred thou- sand, they were not able to resist conquest by far less urbanized outsiders. The eclipse of cities in Europe was striking. Commerce declined to the barest minimum; each locale became isolated and virtually self-sufficient; the social system congealed into a heredi- tary system.' When finally towns and cities began to revive, they were small, as the following estimates suggest:
Florence (1338), 90,000; Venice (1422), 190,000; Antwerp (sixteenth century), 200,000; London (1377), 30,000; ° Nuremberg (1450), 20,165; Frankfort (1440), 8,719."
The cities of Mesopotamia, India, and Egypt, of Persia, Greece, and Rome, had all been tied to an economy that was primarily agricultural, where handicraft played at best a secondary role and where the city was still attempting to supplement its economic weakness with military strength, to command its sustenance rather than to buy it.
In Western Europe, starting at the zero point, the development of cities not only reached the stage that the ancient world had achieved but kept going after that. It kept going on the basis of improvements in agriculture and transport, the opening of new lands and new trade routes, and, above all, the rise in productive activity, first in highly organized handicraft and eventually in a revolutionary new form of production-the factory run by machinery and fossil fuel. The transformation thus achieved in the nineteenth century was the true urban revolution, for it meant not only the rise
4 of a few scattered towns and cities but the appearance of genuine urbanization, in the sense that a substantial portion of the population lived in towns and cities.
2. INDUSTRIAL TOWNS
Industrial district was initially introduced as a term to describe an area where workers of a monolithic heavy industry (ship-building, coal
mining, steel, ceramics, etc.) live within walking-distance of their places of work.
In England, such areas were usually characterized by block streets of Victorian terraced housing, often with the giant industrial structures looming over the houses. Very few working industrial districts are left now.
England 1760-1830: inventions like the steam machine by Watt and the coke by Darby made possible a huge increase of the industrial production, with the following moving of families from the agricultural settlements in the South to the mining once in the North and in the Middle.
Suddenly new towns grew.
At the same time, due to the trade, the communication system was renewed, that took to grows of some cities, especially London.
This radical and almost sudden changing of the cities took to the need of new settlements, without any adequate control and planning.
industrial towns close to factories – facilities like schools and shops
Active movement from country to towns
Railways and rail way stations played a role in the planning of towns.
The World Fair grounds in Chicago in 1892 resulted in the development of a new attitude toward industrial cities.
Industry and industrial towns close to factories – facilities like schools and shops
Active movement from country to towns
Railways and rail way stations played a role in the planning of towns.
3. MODERN TOWNS AND CITIES &
WORKS OF EMINENT TOWN PLANNERS 1900-1930s: persistent and expanded urban problems and a diversity of responses
Industrial hyper-development presented new challenges eliciting a diversity of complex responses.
Economic depression (1929-39) stimulated “New Deal” action ranging from environmental planning, to urban and industrial/labor as well as social reform.
The planning responses Reflected differing perspectives/philosophies and differing outcomes.
3.1 Garden Cities
Ebenezer Howard‟s ideal city design.Letchworth (35000 people), Welwyn (40,000 people) and other city planned on this concept.
Ideas of garden city by an impressive diagram of "three magnets“
public building located centrally
shopping centre to be located on the edge
industries to be located on outskirts of the town
Rural fresh air, gardens, playfields, cottages etc. And amenities of urban life schools, theatres, hospitals, recreation centres etc.
land to be brought under co- operative basis.
3.2 Sir Patrick GeddeS (1854 – 1932)
Concept: survey before plan
emphasis on survey before plan
Diagnosis before treatment to make a correct diagnosis of various ills from which the town suffers & then describe correct remedies for his cure
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Relationship among folk, places and work.
Folk organism (social aspect)
place (physical aspect)
work (economical aspect
Rural development, Urban planning and city are not the same and adopting a common planning process is disastrous.
“Conurbation” waves of population inflow to large cities, followed by overcrowding and slum formation, and then the wave of back flow.
The whole process resulting in amorphous sprawl, waste and unnecessarily obsolescence.
3.3 Neighborhood Unit
The „neighborhood unit‟ as a planning concept evolved in response to the degenerated environmental and social conditions fostered as a consequence of industrial revolution in the early 1 900s.
One of the earliest authors to attempt a definition of the „neighborhood unit‟
in fairly specific terms was Clarence Arthur Perry (1872-1944), a New York planner. Perry‟s neighborhood unit concept began as a means of insulating the community from the ill-effects of burgeoning sea of vehicular traffic.
However, it evolved to serve a much broader purpose of providing a discernible identity for the concept of the neighborhood, and of offering to designers a framework for disseminating the city into smaller subareas.
While the origin of the concept of the neighborhood unit may be cited at an early date, it was the publication of Clarence A. Perry‟s memorandum entitled
„The Neighborhood Unit‟ in the 1929
„Regional Plan of New York and Its
Environs‟, which led to its promotion as a planning tool. Perry‟s monograph offered in concrete terms a diagrammatic model of the ideal layout for a neighborhood of a specified population size. This model provided specific guidelines for the spatial distribution of residences, community services, streets and businesses.
3.3.1 Clarence a. Perry’s Conception of the neighborhood unit
Perry described the neighborhood unit as that populated area which would require and support an elementary school with an enrolment of between 1,000 and 1,200 pupils. This would mean a population of between 5,000 and 6,000 people.
Developed as a low density dwelling district with a population of 10 families per acre, the neighborhood unit would occupy about 160 acres and have a shape which would render it unnecessary for any child to walk a distance of more than one-quarter mile to school. About 10 percent of the area would be allocated to recreation, and through traffic arteries would be confined to the surrounding streets, internal streets being limited to service access for residents of the neighborhood. The unit would be served by shopping facilities, churches, and a library, and a community center, the latter being located in conjunction with the school (Gallion, 1984).
Clarence A. Perry‟s Neighborhood unit of 1929.
Perry outlined six basic principles of good neighborhood design. As may be
6 understood, these core principles were organized around several institutional, social and physical design ideals:
Major arterials and through traffic routes should not pass through residential neighborhoods.
Instead these streets should provide boundaries of the neighborhood;
Interior street patterns should be designed and constructed through use of cul-de-sacs, curved layout and light duty surfacing so as to encourage a quiet, safe and low volume traffic movement and preservation of the residential atmosphere;
The population of the neighborhood should be that which is required to support its elementary school;
The neighborhood focal point should be the elementary school centrally located on a common or green, along with other institutions that have service areas coincident with the neighborhood boundaries;
The radius of the neighborhood should be a maximum of one quarter mile thus precluding a walk of more than that distance for any elementary school child;
and
Shopping districts should be sited at the edge of neighborhoods preferably at major street intersections.
3.3.2 Neighborhood Conception by others
The concept propagated by Clarence A.
Perry was carried forward by several others with certain variations or elaborations. For example, N.L.
Engelhardt, Jr. presented a comprehensive pattern of the neighborhood units grouped in relation to the various levels of school facilities.
He proposed a radius of ½ mile as maximum walking distance to the elementary school. Playgrounds and nursery schools are proposed with a radius of ¼ mile walking distance for the families in the neighborhood.
Clarence Stein placed the elementary school at the center of the neighborhood unit and within ¼ mile
radius of all residents. A small shopping center for daily needs is located near the school. Most residential streets are suggested as cul-de-sac or „dead-end‟
roads to eliminate through traffic, and park space flows through the neighborhood in a manner reminiscent of the Radburn Plan. He further expanded the definition of neighborhood center by connecting the neighborhoods together to create towns. the radius for walking distance to these facilities being one mile.
The neighborhood unit has been defined and redefined throughout the planning history. Despite several variations, the principle of neighborhood unit runs through all considerations for social, physical and political organization of the city. It represents a unit of the population with basic common needs for educational, recreational and other service facilities, and it is the standard for these facilities from which the size and design of the neighborhood emerge.
Engelhardt‟s diagram of Neighborhoods Clarence Stein‟s 1942 Diagram of Neghibourhoods.
7 3.4 Ekistics
Is the study of human settlement, which examines not only built forms, but also the interface of time, movements and systems in the built environment.
Doxiadis saw ekistics as an intellectual approach to balance the convergence of the past present and future in human settlements as well as a system for creatively coping with the growth of population, rapid change and the pressure of large scale, high density housing.
Ekistics logarithmic scale (ELS) consists of 15 Ekistics units ranging from Man to Ecumenopolis.
1. Minor shells or elemantry units ( Man, room, house)
2. Micro- settlements, the unit smaller than or as small as, the traditional town where people used to and still do achieve interconnection by walking.
3. Meso- settlements, between the traditional town and the conurbation within which one can commute daily.
4. Macro settlements, whose largest possible expression is the Ecumenopolis.
3.5 Satellite Towns Develpoment
A satellite town or city is concept in urban planning that refers essentially to miniature metropolitan area on the fringe of larger ones.Satellite towns are characterized be small or medium sized cities near a large metropolis that are physically separated from the metropolis by rural territory; satellite towns must have their own independent urbanized area.
3.6 Ribbon Develpoment
Ribbon development means building
houses along routes of
communications radiating from a human settlement. Such development generated great concern in the U.K during the 1920s and 30s, as well as in numerous other countries.
Following the industrial revolution, ribbon development became prevalent along railway lines ~predominantly in the UK, Russia, and United States.A good example of this was the deliberate promotion of metroland along London‟s metropolitan railway.
Similar evidence can be found from Long Island where Frederick W Dunton bought much real estate to encourage New Yorkers to settle along the Long Island Railroad lines), Boston and across the American mid~west.
Ribbon development can also be compared with a linear village that grew along a transportation route, not as a part of city‟s expansion.
Le Corbusier (1920s): skyscrapers in parks
• apartment tower idea caught on, but not the park setting
• bland concrete apartment building is everywhere, and is hated everywhere
Frank Lloyd Wright (1930s):
“Broadacre City”
• his small house with carport became more or less the American standard in the 1950s
• his dream of a decentralized, automobile-dependent society materialized
• Wright‟s vision, with 1-acre lots, would have created even worse traffic nightmares.
3.7 Arturo Soria-Y-Mata
• Concept: Linear city
• invented urban telephone networks
• of a subway system for Madrid
• established a magazine on urbanism called "La Ciudad Lineal“
• first linear city around Madrid to fruition intended to be 48 kilometres long, ringing the
8 city, with a 7 kilometre radial connection.
Soria's linear city creates the infrastructure for a controlled process of expansion that joins one growing city to the next in a rational way, instead of letting them both sprawl.
4. URBAN PLANNING IN INDIA India has characteristically drifted with history, rising periodically to accomplish great things. In no field has this been truer than in town planning. From prehistoric Mohenjo Daro, to the imperial city of New Delhi, to Corbusier's Chandigarh, India has pioneered in town building.
The technique of diagnostic survey, commonplace in planning practice today, is the some-what belated result of Patrick Geddes' work in India four decades ago: the City Improvement Trusts in existence since the 1800's are models of their kind.
suburban growth is the signature of india‟s urbanization. rural areas adjacent to india‟s major metropolitan cities are witnessing faster economic growth and generating higher employment than the mega- cities.
„urbanization beyond municipal boundaries‟
examines the phenomenon of india‟s rapid suburbanization, looking at its impact on efficiency, inclusion and sustainability. the government of india has included many of the recommendations in its urban plans.
this has huge implications for providing infrastructure and other civic amenities in urban areas.
with nearly 300 million urban residents, india ranks second
in the world in terms of total
urban population.
paradoxically,
india also figures amongst the least urbanized countries worldwide.
4.1 Birth and Objectives of MRTP Act,1969
The MRTP Act 1969 is an important but very controversial piece of economic legislation. The act came into force from 1st June 1970 and has been amended in 1974,1980,1982,1984 and 1991. This act applies to whole states except J&K.
Objectives
To control monopolies and monopolistic trade practices
Prevention of concentration of economic power in few hands only.
To regulate restrictive trade practices
After amendment of act in 1984 a 4th objective was introduced:
Regulation of unfair trade practices
After the amendment of act in 1991, the objectives now are:
Regulating unfair trade practices.
Controlling monopolistic trade practices.
4.2 Existing System Of Urban Development Planning
In India Urban Development Planning is based on Master Plans, Zonal Plans, Zoning Regulation, Bye Laws and related guidelines approved by the State Government. Master Plans of various town and urban areas in different States are inspiration of Delhi Master Plan which was the first Master Plan prepared under Delhi development Act 1957. This act was more or less on the lines of Town &
Country Planning Act 1947 of Britain.
Delhi Development Act 1957 is a major land mark in the present town planning system in India as it was the first attempt in which there is a provision of creating a separate agency/ authority and entrusting on it, the responsibilities of spatial development of a city in India.
Delhi Development Act 1957 explains the constitution of Delhi Development Authority, Its aim, objectives & various bodies and their function. Delhi Development Act. 1957 confers the power of land acquisition, holding and disposing the properties to Delhi Development Authority. Delhi Development Act 1957 recommends the preparation of Master Plans, contents of the Master Plan, which
9 shall defined the various zones into which Delhi may be divided for the purpose of development and indicate the manner in which the land in each zones is proposed or to be used and the stages in which such development shall be carried out, also it prepares the basic frame in which zonal development plan & zoning regulation are to be prepared.
4.3 Emerging Pattern Of Urban Growth In India:-
The urban problems are not all of recent making. In India the urban situation had become serious because of the large increase in population since 1921. While the percentage increase for the nation as a whole was 11% , 14% , 3% and 13.4%
respectively, for the decennial periods 1921-1951, the urban areas increased by 21% , 32% and 54% respectively, during the same periods. The urban drift is continuing unabated. The heavy shifts of population are the result of the lack of adequate employment opportunities in the villages and the attraction of relatively high wages and amenities in the
towns. Unemployment and
particularly underemployment in agriculture stimulates this tendency.
Since 1947 when the country was partitioned, there has been a heavy influx of refugees into urban areas. 5 The number of towns with populations in excess of 100,000 doubled in the twenty years prior to 1951. Today Greater Calcutta counts a population of about 5 million while Bombay and Delhi have populations of 3 and 1 million, respectively. Planning and development have not and perhaps could not keep pace. In contrast to the examples of New Delhi and Chandigarh most towns in India have grown haphazardly. They have a large proportion of substandard houses and huts of flimsy construction, poorly ventilated, over-congested and often lacking in the essential amenities.
On state levels some progress has been made in enacting planning legislation and setting up planning agencies. The results have not all been entirely satisfactory. In several cases efforts were made by some states to abolish or merge planning departments with the public works
department. Nevertheless, the Second Plan largely places the onus of planning on the states. If planned urban development is to be undertaken, said the Planning Commission, "each state should have a phased program for the survey and preparation of Master Plans for all important towns." The Commission noted that, in order that this might be accomplished, town and country planning legislation should be enacted in all states and the necessary machinery for its implementation should be set up.
4.4 Key Features Of Planning In India
Urban Planning in India includes (but is not confined to) the following –
Town planning Regulati n of land use for residential and
commercial purposes
Construction of buildings Planning for economic development Planning for
social development
Construction of roads Constructions of bridges
Water supply for domestic use, industrial and commercial purposes
Public health care management
Sewerage, sanitation and solid waste management
Proper fire services
Urban forestation and maintenance
Protection of environment
through sustainable
development
Promotion of ecological balance and maintenance
Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society
Offering proper infrastructural help to the handicapped and mentally retarded population of the society
Organized slum improvement Phased removal or alleviation of urban poverty
Increased provision of basic urban facilities like public urinals, subways, footpaths,
parks, gardens, and
playgrounds
10
Increased public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus-stop and public conveyances
Continual promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects of the environment
Increased number of burials, burial grounds, cremation grounds and electric crematoria
Proper regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries
Absolute prevention of / zero tolerance of cruelty to animals.
Proper maintenance of population statistics, including registration of births and death records.
5. CONCLUSION OF BACK GROUND STUDIES
During the early ages of civilization to the period of industrialization, i,e; upto the mid of 18 th centuary, defnece against various factors like nomadic herders, other agriculturist,
armies, knights,
revolutionaries respectively, were more or less the governing factors for city planning.
After wards i,e; during the 19th centaury, various eminent town planners developed various theories which suited the arising needs at that particular time and are still in practice.
In India it is estimated that in next 20 years around 40-45%
of population of the country shall be residing in urban areas, so architects and urban planners have to bring out innovative methodology to practically understand &
improve the system and process of urbanization. Indian urban development planning is based on master plans, zonal plans, zoning regulation, bye laws and related guidelines approved by the state government. The system is
very rigid, inflexible and insensitive towards the fast dynamic socio-economic- political and technological changes in cities, hence there is a dire need for change and modification is existing system of urban development planning process: a call for new paradigm.
The major concern today (focusing on India‟s rapidly developing sub urbs) is the absence of laws and regulations for new suburbs. Acquisition of agricultural land and high consumption of energy is the result of this fast
growing trend of
conurbation.
Important aspect is how the presence of building / location of a building with respect to each other can contribute to the thermal environmental improvement this has not yet been addressed.
If we imagine one building standing alone, then another building block is placed with judicious placement, the environment in both of them may improve however, in the absence of any concern for the thermal performance, loss of energy takes place therefore,
It is proposed to study the energy efficiency these building blocks can bring when place next to each other.
REFERENCES AND BIBILIOGRAPHY
1. THE ARCHITECTURE OF TOWNS AND CITIES, Paul D. Spreiregen, Macgraw hill book company, NY
2. THE URBAN PATTERN, B. Gallion &
Simon Eisner, Van Nostrand Reinhold company
3. IMAGE OF THE CITY, Kevin Lynch, macgraw hill book company,NY
4. AN INTRODUCTION TO TOWN &
COUNTRY PLANNING, John Ratcliffe,Hutchinson 1981
5. THE GROWTH OF CITIES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Adna F. Weber,
11
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1899).
6. MAN MAKES HIMSELF (rev. ed.; London:
Watts, 1941), 2V. Gordon Childe, chaps.
v-vi; What Happened in History (London and New York: Penguin Books, 1946 [first printed in 1942]), chaps. iii-iv 7. URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING,
Rame Gowda
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9. TOWN PLANNING,
A.Bandhopadhyay,books & allied, Calcutta, 2000
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11. TOWN PLANNING, Rangwala, Charotar publications
12. THE DELHI DEVELOPMENT ACT , 1957 ; Government of India , Ministry of Law and Company Affairs .
13. MAHARASTRA ACT NO. XXXVII OF 1966 : The Maharastra Regional and Town planning Act, 1966 . Govt. of Maharastra, Law and Judiciary Dept. Published by the Director General, Govt. Printing, Stationery and publications, M aharashtra State, Bombay 400 004.
14. MAHARASTRA ACT NO. IV OF 1975 : The Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority Act , 1974 , Govt.
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, published by the 7. Director Govt.
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15. UTTAR PRADESH REGULATION OF
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16. NAGAR MAHAPALICA, ADHINIYAM , 1959, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh .
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19. “PROJECTS” : PREPARATION , APPRAISAL, BUDGETING AND IMPLEMENTATION “ , . Chandra , Prasanna ; Third Edition , Tata Mc Graw Hill Publication Co. Ltd, New Delhi .
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URBANIZATION IN INDIA, R.B.Bhagat, Economic & political weekly, Vol.
xlvi,Aug 2011
22. THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF URBANIZATION IN THE WORLD, kingsley davis,the americal general of sociology,vol.60, march 1955, Stable URL:
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