Concepts of Innate and Specifi c Immunity
The Innate Immune Response
Specifi c Acquired Immunity
Peptides presented by MHC class II molecules stimulate the CD4+ T cells, which are able to eliminate both intracellular and extracellular pathogens. The division of the immune system into innate and specific immunity (Table 2.6) does not mean the strict separation of both when encountering pathogens.
Mucosal Immunology
- S-IgA as the Major Ig Subclass in the Mucosal
- Inductive Sites of the Mucosal Immune
- Effector Sites of the Mucosal Immune System,
- Cytokine Regulation of the Gut Mucosal
The primary inductive sites for mucosal immune responses are organized lymphoid aggregates such as Peyer's patches in the wall of the gut or tonsils in the upper respiratory tract. It is now established that the mucosal immune system is a distinct and separate component of the host immune apparatus and is distinct from.
Distinct Features of the Genital Mucosal Tissue
The female genital tract has long been neglected as a subject of research, but its importance for the human immune system has been increasingly recognized in recent years. Advances in the immunology of the female genital tract may have implications for other related areas of research, such as the immunology of genital infections and the immunology of pregnancy.
Functions and Regulations of Innate Immune
Epithelial Cells in Mucosal Immunity
The Role of Macrophages in the Female
Dendritic Cells
NK Cells
Neutrophils in the Female Genital Tract
Functions and Regulation of Adaptive Humoral
Immunoglobulins in the Female Genital Tract
However, the precise role of neutrophils in the fallopian tubes as part of the local immune system remains rather unclear. However, the high representation of the serum monomeric form of IgA in the vagina is clearly demonstrated.
Prevalence of T Lymphocytes
This relationship between the estrous cycle and specific antibody levels probably reflects the changes that occur in the female reproductive tract during the course of the estrous cycle. Further studies are needed to investigate the effect of sex hormones on T cell function, particularly in the genital tract.
Immunization Studies
Vaginal Immunization
Local intravaginal immunization requires large and repeated doses of antigen; the influence of the menstrual cycle must also be taken into account. These considerations and findings support the idea that the genital tracts represent effector sites of the central mucosal immune system.
Rectal Immunization
Nasal Immunization
IgG antibodies in vaginal fluid and also IgA antibodies in saliva and IgG and IgA antibodies in serum. Analysis of the molecular forms of IgA antibodies in mouse vaginal swabs showed that these were predominantly polymeric and similar to those in saliva, consistent with S-IgA, although smaller amounts of possibly monomeric IgA were also present.
Systemic Immunization
Classic Concepts of Menstruation
Distinct Features of the Endometrium
ICAM-1 has been detected in the stroma of the functionalis during the menstrual phase of the cycle. Gonadotropin- and cytokine-regulated expression of the chemokine interleukin-8 in the human preovulatory follicle during the menstrual cycle.
Introduction
Viral Infections of the Genital Tract
Herpes Simplex Virus
The exact role played by different DC populations in the immune response to HSV in the female genital tract is not clear. Further studies are ongoing to better define the role that DCs play in the mucosal response to HSV infection in the genital tract. The role played by neutrophils in the innate immune response to genital herpes in humans is not precisely known.
Resiquimod has been shown to inhibit herpetic lesions and slow the recurrence of genital herpes in the guinea pig model.
Human Immunodefi ciency Virus
Therefore, a better understanding of the immunological mechanisms in the mucosa of the genital tract that occur during HIV infection is essential. Three possible mechanisms of virus transmission in the female genital tract have been suggested. Therefore, it is important to assess the function as well as the frequency of HIV-1-specific CD8+ cell responses in the genital tract.
As in the periphery, HIV-1 infection causes a disruption of the CD4/CD8 ratio in cervical mucosa.
Human Papillomavirus
Sex hormones and cytokine levels in the environment of the virus and target cells can influence infectivity. 4.2.3.2.5 Suppression of Langerhans cells Disturbances in the afferent phase of the immune response are suspected. Clues to the nature of the cellular immune response to HPV infection have come from immunohistological studies of spontaneously regressing genital warts.
The inability of the immune system to eliminate HPV was reflected by the absence of type 1 T-cell immunity to HPV 16 E2 and E6 in patients with cervical lesions.
Bacterial Infections of the Genital Tract
Gonorrhea
In contrast to the inflammatory response that occurs mainly in gonococcal infection of the urethra in men, 50-80% of women with N of the lower genital tract. A high rate of reinfection despite the presence of anti-gonococcal antibodies leads to the assumption. In contrast to the inflammatory response that occurs mainly in gonococcal infection of the male urethra, 50-80% of women with N. of the lower genital tract.
Binding of the gonococci to CR3 requires the cooperative action of iC3b bound to the gonococcal surface in combination with gonococcal porin and pilus.
Chlamydia trachomatis
The recruitment of cells with a DC phenotype has been demonstrated in the genital tract during Chlamydia infection of mice. The large majority of chlamydial burden in the genital tract is cleared in IFN-γ −/− mice and these mice do not develop dissemination of the organism after a second vaginal inoculation. ICAM-1 was found to be expressed in the lower duct of uninfected mice; VCAM-1 and MAdCAM-1 were induced in the lower genital tract early after infection.
However, a study by Johansson and Lycke in B-cell-deficient mice indicated that long-term protection in the genital tract against C.
Bacterial Vaginosis
The presence of BV was associated with a sixfold increase in the amount of HIV shed compared to normal flora. Thus, there may be a change in the response of the local immune system during pregnancy. However, IL-8 does not appear to be associated with the presence of BV in the same distinct manner as IL-1β.
An association has also been shown between abnormal vaginal flora and increased levels of IL-1β in the cervix.
Candidiasis
- Cell-Mediated Immunity in Candida Infection
- Cytokine Responses in Candidiasis
- Antibody Responses in Candidiasis
- Effect of Reproductive Hormones
- Immunotherapeutic Strategies
Interestingly, a human study showed that although vaginal EC anti-Candida activity was not different at the different stages of the menstrual cycle, it was significantly reduced in women with a history of RVVC. Indeed, protective antibodies against well-defined virulence factors of the fungus have been reported. Clinical observations indicated that VVC most often occurred in women during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, when estrogen and progesterone levels were elevated.
This protection was associated with the presence of both anti-mannan and anti-Sap antibodies, mainly of the IgG and IgA isotypes.
Trichomoniasis
Innate Immune Responses in Trichomoniasis
The establishment of HIV-1 infection appears to depend on the concentration of the virus, the presence of other genital tract infections, and the effectiveness of the immune system in the reproductive tract. Interestingly, a recent study showed a significant correlation between a single nucleotide polymorphism in the untranslated region of DEFB1. However, further studies are needed to further elucidate their role in HIV immunity in the female genital tract.
Female hormones can affect HIV replication not only in the genital tract, but also in the periphery. The level of specific antibodies in the human female genital tract is likely to be an important determinant of vaccine efficacy. The findings therefore suggest that ECs in the genital tract would not be stimulated during infection with T.
Specifi c Immunity in Trichomoniasis
A significant increase in the population of total T cells, as well as CD4+ T cells, was detected in mice infected with isolates from asymptomatic females compared to mice infected with symptomatic isolates. No significant difference was observed in CD8+ cells, whereas a significant difference between the two groups was noted in the vital CD4+/CD8+. A significant increase in NK cells was also observed in animals infected with isolates from asymptomatic females compared to mice infected with isolates from symptomatic females and control uninfected mice, indicating that NK cells may play a role in the pathogenesis of this disease.
These results on cytokine production also suggest that the Th1-type response may play a role in the elimination of T.
The Role of Cytokines
The study indicates that specific IgG, particularly IgG1 and IgM, may play a role in the establishment of symptomatic infection. Alternatively, antibodies specific for soluble parasite molecules such as proteases, cytoactive molecules or lytic factors such as phospholipases may also be protective. However, proof of the protective nature of antibodies in eliminating infection or limiting pathogenesis in vivo has been hampered by a lack of an adequate experimental animal model for vaginal infection studies.
NF-κB is involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses by inducing cytokines such as IL-12 and TNF-α and activating effector molecules of innate immunity, including macrophages.
Vaccination Strategies
Summary
Risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in herpes simplex virus type 2 seropositive subjects: a meta-analysis. Effects of estradiol and progesterone on susceptibility and early immune responses to Chlamydia trachomatis infection in the female reproductive tract. Pattern of cytokine expression in the genital tract of infertile women positive for Chlamydia trachomatis - implications for T cell responses.
Co-infection of herpes simplex virus (HSV) with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in women with reproductive tract infections (RTI).
Immunology of Pregnancy
Immunology of Fertilization
The second phase includes fertilization and embryo development until the morula stage, when the sperm penetrates the egg and becomes immunologically invisible to the mother's immune system. When this happens, the fertilized egg is quickly surrounded by the zona pellucida, which fends off the mother's immune cells. The surrounding zona pellucida continues to provide significant protection against the mother's immune system, so that the development of the mother's immune tolerance towards the embryo only takes place in the implantation phase, where there is direct embryo/mother contact in the womb.
This physiological state of close physical contact between the mother's immune system and the fetal cells with antigens from the father is.
Immunobiology of the Trophoblast
Immunology at the Fetomaternal Interface
Immunology of Labor and the
Disturbances in Maternal–Fetal Interaction
Immunological Aspects of Early
Women with recurrent miscarriages have high numbers of CD16+ CD56+ conventional type NK cells in the uterus. Trophoblast cells are resistant to cell lysis unless decidual NK cells have been stimulated with IL-2, which is not present in the decidua. Therefore, changes in cytokine production by activated T cells may play an important role in the immunological tolerance of the conceptus.
Increased concentrations of G-CSF in the cervix during labor may also stimulate proliferation of the neutrophil subset.
Immunological Infertility
Immunological Infertility in Males
Autoimmune Processes in Infertility
Treatment Options for Immunological
Thus, expression of FasL in the uterine glands and cytotrophoblasts may play a role in down-regulating the maternal immune response, thereby maintaining pregnancy at an early stage. Already in the last part of the menstrual cycle, a large number of maternal leukocytes can be found in the endometrium. Also, the number of IL-4-secreting cells gradually increases during pregnancy.
Normal pregnancy was associated with a high increase in IL-4 in the first half of pregnancy, but in the second half of pregnancy and the puerperium, high levels of IL-4 were associated with preeclampsia.
Immunocontraceptive Approaches
Anti-GnRH Vaccines
Anti-FSH Vaccine
Antisperm Vaccines
Anti-oocyte Zona Pellucida (ZP) Vaccines
Trophoblast cells are also present in the decidua, where they contribute to further stimulation of the mother with fetal antigens. Extravillous trophoblast cells interact with maternal immune cells at the implantation site in the decidua basalis, including abundant NK cells, APCs, and T cells. There is a massive recruitment of NK cells at the embryonic site of implantation, making them the predominant cell type of the maternal immune system in the decidua basalis during early pregnancy.
Th1 and Th2 type cytokines produced by maternal T lymphocytes present at the fetomaternal interface appear to play a role in the development of pregnancy.
Anti-hCG Vaccine
Other Vaccination Strategies
- Cellular Factors
- Humoral Factors
- The Major Histocompatibility Complex
- B Lymphocytes
- T Lymphocytes
S-IgA as the Major Ig Subclass in
Inductive Sites of the Mucosal
Effector Sites of the Mucosal Immune
