Introduction
State of the art literature review
The peer-reviewed publications on Covid-19 and mask use from 2020 to 2022 were analyzed using Advanced Scopus Search Engine. The results revealed that the advances in face masks received a lot of attention during the Covid-19 pandemic.
Virus transmission mechanism
- Contact transmission
- Droplet transmission
- Aerosol transmission
Face masks
- Homemade masks
- Community/Non-medical masks
- Medical/Surgical masks
- Certified - Approved masks
- N95 Masks
- Biodegradable face masks
- Full-length face shield
Yang et al.(2011), surveyed 400 healthcare professionals working in eight hospitals in Beijing and found that the majority (70%) of employees self-reported good mask adherence. Biodegradable polymers can act as a viable filter medium in surgical face masks (Babaahmadi et al., 2021).
Health impacts
Effect of Toxic Chemicals in facemask
- Formaldehyde
- Aniline
- Fluorocarbons
- Phthalates and Organophosphates
However, little is known about the presence and potential risks of phthalates in face masks (Xie et al.,2021). Commercial masks may also contain chlorinated phenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and some plasticizers such as phthalates (Fernández-Arribas et al., 2021). Phthalates are basically a family of synthetic compounds used as plasticizers and stabilizers in a variety of consumer items (shower curtains, children's toys, cosmetics) and personal care products (fragrances, nail polishes, deodorants and lotions) (Heudorf et al.,2007) .
Previously, phthalates have been found in cotton clothing, sanitary napkins, paper diapers, toys and other textiles and products that come into contact with the skin (Gao et al., 2019). Phthalates are widespread in personal care products and may have an effect on reproductive function (Ziv-Gal et al., 2016). This exposure to phthalates is associated with human contact allergies and carcinogenic problems (Li et al., 2019).
However, there is no international norm or guideline regarding the use of phthalates in masks (Xie et al., 2021). In addition, the current study shows that long-term wearing of a plastic mask can cause a range of skin problems (Aerts et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2020).
Effect of prolonged exposure to face masks
Since most face masks are constructed of polymers, and phthalates are often used as polymer additives, the face mask may expose people to phthalates. Polymers such as polyester, polypropylene, polyurethane, polyacrylonitrile, polystyrene, polycarbonate and polyethylene are used to make disposable face masks (Potluri and Needham, 2005). The wide variety of products containing phthalates results in an annual global production and consumption of phthalates of more than 18 billion pounds (Hannon and Flaws, 2015).
Since face masks come in close contact with the nose and mouth, so phthalates can be acquired through cutaneous absorption, inhalation and ingestion. In addition, prolonged mask use may cause erythema, eruption, acne, pustules, papules, pigmentation and contact dermatitis along the contact areas (Das et al., 2020). According to another study by Szepietowski et al.(2020) in Poland, 60.4% reported using face masks in the previous week; 19.6% had facial itching as a result of wearing a face mask; the worst degree of pruritus (WI-NRS) was 2.06–4.07 points (range: 0–10 points), indicating a moderate degree of pruritus.
It was discovered that people who used face masks for longer periods of time during the day had increased irritation. As a result, it is reasonable to conclude that wearing face masks causes discomfort to people of all ages, which can lead to scratching and improper use of face masks, reducing their effectiveness and the level of protection they offer.
Psychological aspects
sensitivity to mask and PPE components that can potentially cause urticaria and contact dermatitis (Al Badri, 2017).
Post-usage scenario of face masks – Disposal
Segregation
Sterilisation and decontamination
- Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI)
- Hydrogen peroxide vaporisation
- Microwave inactivation
- Autoclaving
It has been proven to work on respirators contaminated with various viruses including H1N1 influenza (Ranney et al., 2020). Previous investigations have suggested that under certain conditions, wet steam sterilization can effectively decontaminate specific models of N95 FFRs. There was no apparent difference after autoclaving; however, the masks shrank and stiffened, and the plastic closure on the cord (black color) used in the face masks melted slightly (Kumar et al., 2021).
Special waste management techniques
- Waste storage
- Collection and transportation
- Incineration
- Plasma incineration
- Pyrolysis
- Carbonisation
It appears to be one of the most promising strategies for converting plastics into liquid fuels (Juwono et al.,2019). This can be mainly attributed to the propensity of pyrolysis processes to generate fuels - Budsaereechai et al. (2019) reported the application of the produced fuel to generate various forms of energy in boilers, turbines, engines and generators. Pyrolysis requires simple equipment design and has low environmental impact on liquid fuel, contributing to the current waste management crisis (Su et al., 2021).
Using CO2-assisted pyrolysis, researchers used disposable masks to retrieve syngas and C1-2 hydrocarbons (Jung et al., 2021). Torres and Dela Torre (2021) concluded that this technology appears to be promising as it reduces CO2 emissions while also providing tertiary end products. Jung et al.(2021) investigated the process of two-stage catalytic pyrolysis of face masks in a tubular reactor setup. HCs can be made from plastic face masks to help reduce CO2 emissions (Jung et al., 2021).
The process is economical in terms of energy consumption and low effluent emissions, and it is considered a facile process that can yield a variety of carbon-based products as end products (Chen et al., 2020). Joseph et al.( 2021) concluded that the presence of polypropylene in face masks makes it an attractive carbonization feed. The carbonization of used face masks has recently been investigated for potential use in supercapacitors and adsorbents (Asim et al., 2021).
Environmental impacts
Microplastics in Water bodies
Microplastics in air
Microplastics in soil
Recycling
Repurposing of face masks
- Filters
- Thickening agents
- Building materials
The addition of the shredded face mask improved the ductility and flexibility of RCA/SFM blends while increasing their strength and stiffness. In contrast, increasing the amount of SFM by over 2% resulted in loss of strength and stiffness (Saberian et al., 2021). A promising economically viable alternative is the valorization of such materials by using them for wastewater treatment (Asim et al., 2021).
Fibers have been used as building materials to strengthen and increase structural strength since a long time (Costa et al., 2019). The use of polypropylene fibers in road construction and improved concrete has produced excellent results. Single-use face masks were used to increase the ductility, compressive strength, and flexibility of the pavement base/subbase (Saberian et al., 2021).
Concrete strength can be improved by adding nominal amounts of SFM waste (0.2% by volume) (Kilmartin-Lynch et al.,2021). Nevertheless, before being used as a construction material, potentially contaminated PPE must be decontaminated as part of the safety protocol (Asim et al., 2021).
Recent advancements
Adding chemicals and nucleating agents to the nanofibers helps break down or deactivate impurities, reducing the risk of respiratory infections and viruses (O'Dowd et al., 2020). In contrast to commercial fibers, the composite had a filtration efficiency of 99.99% and a deep layer filtration pattern, unlike the surface filtration pattern of conventional fibers (Wang et al., 2012). Bortolassi et al. (2019) studied the production of new electrospun PAN membranes exposed to Ag, ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles and the filtration efficiency using NaCl filtration - the TiO2F filter had the best filtration efficiency, while the AgF filter had the best QF (quality factor).
The antibacterial and antituberculosis performance of polypropylene filter was recently improved by coating with mangosteen extract (MG) (Ekabutr et al., 2018). Due to its contact-based antibacterial properties, graphene oxide has been considered suitable for the development of antimicrobial surfaces (Bhattacharjee et al., 2019). Yang et al. (2017) developed a unique nanofiber/nanoporous polyethylene system with excellent particle adhesion properties and capture efficiency.
The mask can effectively capture bacterial material and sterilize itself by passing an electric charge (Talebian et al., 2020). As a result, evaluating the filtration efficiency of existing materials that potentially provide significant pathogen protection is critical (O'Dowd et al., 2020).
Computational fluid dynamics of 1-ply and 3-ply masks with cellulose and polymer simulate air transmission during
A 6.2-dimensional model showing a side view of the system with a nostril, a small air pocket inside the mask, and an air space surrounding the mask. The mask analysis was simulated for their behavior during a sneeze with an air velocity of 5 m s-1 exiting the nostril (the total air velocity should be between 2 and 5 m s-1). 7(a) represents an extreme scenario where no air is allowed to flow through the mask.
All the air that is released from the nostrils during sneezing circulates in the mask itself. We note that most of the airflow passes through the mask with little protection provided by the mask.Fig. It is noticeable that the mask offers better protection due to the multi-layered fabric that prevents the flow of air through the mask.
The three-layer mesh formed by cellulose (inner layer) and polymer (outer layer) resulted in significant obtrusion of the flow, forming a strong vortex around the mesh as shown in Fig. In this section of the paper, a brief analysis of the particle flow pattern in the mask and up to 1.5 m from the nostrils is performed, considering polymer and cellulose (cotton fabric) as mask layer materials.
Conclusions
The environmental hazards of using disposable face masks as part of a COVID-19 exit strategy. Review of the valorization options for the proper disposal of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic. Biodegradable and Multifunctional Surgical Face Masks: A Brief Review on Demands During the COVID-19 Pandemic, Recent Developments, and Future Perspectives.
Preliminary evaluation of the feasibility of using polypropylene fibers from COVID-19 disposable face masks to improve the mechanical properties of concrete. Factors associated with depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptomatology during the COVID-19 pandemic: Clinical implications for US young adults' mental health. Face masks and respirators in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic: A review of current materials, advances and future perspectives.
Critical Supply Shortage - The need for ventilators and personal protective equipment during the Covid-19 pandemic. Microplastic waste in the environment: a look at recycling issues of personal protective equipment kits and face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic. Environmental challenges caused by widespread use of face masks during COVID-19: a review and possible solutions.
Generation and management of face mask waste during the COVID-19 pandemic: An overview and the Peruvian case.
