Analyzing the Architectural Expressions of Post-Minimalism in Frank O. Gehry’s Projects
Chuloh Jung1*, Nahla Al Qassimi1, Mohammed Sherzad1
1 Department of Architecture, College of Architecture, Art and Design, Ajman University, United Arab Emirates
*Corresponding Author: [email protected] Accepted: 15 November 2022 | Published: 1 December 2022
DOI:https://doi.org/10.55057/ijarei.2022.4.4.1
___________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Since postmodernism, instead of a specific idea or style dominating, various architects' diverse languages lead the world's architecture. One of the architects receiving much attention despite such diversity is Frank O. Gehry. The multidisciplinary nature of Gehry's morphological language is manifested from various angles, including the introduction of the digital technology used in aircraft technology to architecture and deriving new forms.
This paper explores how late minimalist sculpture's formative characteristics and attributes were projected into Gehry's architecture. Post-minimalism was examined as a methodology, including its thought and constructive properties. His working period was divided into four periods based on Frank Gehry's architectural characteristics and the change in the elements.
The result showed that before the birth of post-minimalism, the first period of Gehry's architecture already showed similar properties to post-minimalism, indicating that Gehry's architecture and post-minimalism sculpture were starting from the same line. The second period of Gehry's architecture shared a lot of formative attributes like post-minimalism. It is presumed that this was the period when post-minimalism was born and flourished, and Gehry was directly influenced by it. Later, the post-minimalistic attribute seemed to disappear somewhat in the 3rd period of Gehry's architecture, but it developed into a new aspect in the 4th period. It was proven that Frank Gehry reflects the attributes of post-minimalism that pursued a semi-form and formed his unique formative language by fusing these sculptural attributes with his architectural vocabulary.
Keywords: Frank O. Gehry, Post-Minimalism, Sculptural Form, Tectonics, Anti-Form __________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
As the postmodern era has passed and the end of the last century and the beginning of the century, many architects have attracted attention with various styles (Abroon, 2021; Urban, 2020; Amiri, 2016). No single thought such as modernism, which led the world enough to be called International Style, is not found, nor is the domination of architects called master architects (Cohen, 2013). Since postmodernism, instead of a specific idea or style dominating, various architects' diverse voices and languages lead the world's architecture (CBC, 2015;
Forbes, 2015).
Frank Gehry has recently been attracting the attention of many people: the architect group, and the public, primarily because of his unique design language, mainly because design language is multidisciplinary (Gehry, 2013; Lee & Lee, 2011). Although architecture is an academic
field that combines beauty and practicality, there were not many architects who attempted an interdisciplinary approach (Mitrache, 2012).
The multidisciplinary nature of Gehry's morphological language is manifested from various angles (Martin, 2011). A new chapter in digital architecture has been opened recently by introducing digital technology in aircraft technology to architecture and deriving new forms (Ping & Lu, 2013; Westfall, 2011). However, the multidisciplinary approach and attitude formed from the beginning of his work made his recent achievements possible (Steele, 2012).
He conducted exchanges with other fields earlier and more actively than any other architect, and in particular, his unique multidisciplinary work appears in the interactions between fine art and architecture (Picon, 2010). Frank Gehry said he interacts with and receives inspiration from fine artists, especially contemporary artists (Pauker, 2013). However, although it is widely known that Gehry is an architect who crossed architecture and art and had many exchanges with his contemporaries, it isn’t easy to find a study on how his influence of Gehry remains concretely in practice (Ouroussoff, 2010).
Therefore, in this study, based on such a point, in the 1970s, when Gehry's work began to attract attention in the architectural world, the formative characteristics and attributes of late minimalist sculpture were projected into Gehry's architecture, and what I would like to see if there is. Rather than simply discussing the one-way influence of sculpture on architecture, it discusses how the attributes of contemporary other genres were projected into Gehry's architecture, which was always open to other worlds outside of architecture (Jung et al., 2021).
This examines how culture is reflected in architecture (Johnson, 2013).
2. Literature Review
2.1. Birth of Post-Minimalism
In a word, the United States in the 1960s, the background of the era in which post-minimalism was born, was a period of chaos and turbulence (Iwamoto, 2013). In particular, ideologically, due to the rise of post-structuralism, this dichotomous thinking base was broken, and the boundary between life and art was broken down (Joye, 2011). The boundary between genres and elite art and popular art collapses in art (Karaca, 2021). Until the early and mid-1960s, American sculpture, that is, American sculpture before such a turbulent influence, was the era of minimalism represented by grids and lattice patterns (Hoteit, 2015).
Figure 1: Untitled by Donald Judd (1968)
It appeared in common across two-dimensional paintings and three-dimensional sculptures (Zipf, 2019). Whether flat or three-dimensional, the most significant characteristic of this minimalism is the repetition of the same elements in the perfect balance of European formalism in the previous period (Theodore, 2014). It was about wanting to get out. Donald Judd (Figure 1) (Samdanis & Lee, 2017). However, around 1967, a trend distinct from such minimalism began to appear (Patterson, 2012). It can be called a series. This intends to minimize the gap between the work and reality, that is, illusion, by reducing the authoritativeness and adaptation to a minimum when drawing a picture or performing a three-dimensional work (Ockman, 2011). A large iron plate, or a piece of wood, which reveals the material’s material properties, is presented as a complete art world (Mohamed, 2014).
Such a new movement is called post-Minimalism (Katz, 2018). It started in earnest with the publication of Robert Morris's Anti-Form soon after; the Anti-Form exhibition planned by Morris was held in December 1968 (Junaidy & Nagai, 2017). He pointed out that although the repetition of a single form of the previous minimalism succeeded in removing the European- style artificial balance or composition, he overlooked the physical characteristics of the material, and the production process of the work should be emphasized, such as stacking, hanging, and loosely stacking (Dimendberg, 2021). It was argued that predetermined morphologies could be avoided by giving the material the resulting morphology and allowing chance and non-determinism (Corona, 2011). Art historian Karl Ruhrberg said, “Sculpture is no longer standing or sitting still and leaning, protruding, bending, or taut, which can be liquid or solid.” The concept of Anti-Form is, in a word, that it aims for a form that is naturally formed as a result of the experimental process of material properties while respecting physical properties out of a pre-determined format (Charitonidou, 2021).
2.2. Post-minimalism Artists and Their Characteristics
Many sculptors in the 1960s expressed the philosophy and formative properties of post- minimalism. In this study, five representative artists were selected and investigated.
2.2.1. Richard Serra
Born in 1939, Sarah is a representative post-minimalistic artist and has exerted the most significant influence in the American sculpture world for over 30 years since the 1960s (Balboa
& Scaroni, 2017). The characteristics of his work are as follows when considering examples of his works.
In 1967, he first made a name for himself in the art world when he presented 'Bridles,’ an experimental work in which a rubber plate he accidentally gave along the way was hung on a wall (Harris, 2013). As a direct opposition to the strict regularity and repeatability of minimal art in the mid-1960s, it caused a great sensation as a message to mark the end of the minimal art era and the arrival of the post-minimalism era (Hartoonian, 2002). Also, he said, “The importance of a work lies in its intention, not in its result or effect,” implying the negation of the synthetic form by emphasizing the work process fundamentally in post-minimalistic art (Kauffman, 2012).
Shortly after that, in 1968, he presented a series of 'Splashing' works, which were exhibited by sprinkling lead in the gaps between the walls and floors of the art museum, hardening it, and then taking it out to display (Figure 2) (Kessler et al., 2013). The work was formed due to the actions (throwing, flowing, cooling, hardening) (Lee et al., 2013). In this work, the form does not exist fundamentally. It is merely the result of materiality and action. This form can never
be predicted or artificially designed. This is just a composite result of the plastic properties of the material ‘lead’ and the action of ‘to splash (Goldberger, 2015).’
Figure 2: Splashing by Richard Serra (1968)
In this way, his interest in ‘process’ is emphasized again in the three-minute film Hands Catching Lead,’ produced in 1969 (Giegold, 2021). Through this work, which consists only of the continuous repetition of Sera's action to catch the falling metal pieces, Sera realizes the concept of the half-form of Morris mentioned above as follows (Garcia Alvarado & Jofre Muñoz, 2012). First, fundamentally deterministic physical forms are excluded due to the nature of his work based on videotapes (Galenson, 2008). In other words, as in a play or a movie, the job disappears when the tape is stopped and turned off (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Hands Catching Lead by Richard Serra (1969)
If the 'spray' work started from the state of melted liquid lead to revealing the results of the action applied to the raw material properties, the pieces using the Corten iron plate, which were paralleled at the same time, started with the physical properties of the 'plate.’ is kept from the actions applied to the board were limited to one or two (Fujita, 2019). Thus, the physical properties were relatively emphasized by keeping a distance from the synthetic or artificial form (Figure 4) (Waldrep, 2012).
Figure 4: St. John's Rotary Arc by Richard Serra (1980)
2.2.2. Robert Morris
Morris, who first advocated the concept of Anti-Form, which can be said to be the representative concept of post-minimalism, began to attract attention (Vitale, 2010). In 1963, he received a notarized statement of the 'Aesthetic withdrawal statement' and announced 'all aesthetic attributes' in his sculptures (Okwudili, 2016). It was from taking a gesture to remove 'and content.’ The message against the fact that the existing elite art pursued only the metaphysical concept of beauty was to foresee the chaos of the late 1960s that would soon follow (Lin, 2013).
In his 'Notes on Sculpture, Morris sees that a work of art is greatly affected by the situation in which it is placed rather than having meaning in itself and that this ‘situation’ is concrete and directly related to the work (Bottazzi, 2018). It emphasizes that it acts on the viewer's perception, and even the viewer's body is included in this 'situation (Bridge, 2015).’ In this way, ‘presence’ is defined as the experience of post-minimal sculpture that requires time to recognize the actual value of the work (Fixsen, 2014). In particular, the felt series, produced in the form of a series since 1967, shows how the same material is perceived differently by its force, the situation in which it is placed, and the applied force (Figure 5) (Caetano & Leitão, 2020).
Figure 5: Untitled by Robert Morris (1968)
2.2.3. Carl Andre
Karl André is an artist who shared and combined the attributes of minimalism and post- minimalism. Combining the formality of minimalism with traditional forms and the physical properties of raw materials, his works, like Serana Morris, take a geometric and neutral state of repetition instead of an applied force (verb) to show off their physical properties (Celani, 2012).
Through works in which aluminum and zinc plates of a square module are spread out in a square shape or in positions in which logs are cut and trimmed into a rectangular parallelepiped and stacked, André conveys the physical properties more intensely than the original form of the material (Figure 6) (Charalambides, 2019). In particular, the repetition of the module implies the social meaning that physical properties can also be produced in large quantities (Filler, 2007). In addition to the above materials, Andre similarly delivered physical properties to materials such as lead, copper, and magnesium (Peters & Olabode, 2018).
Figure 6: Timber Pieces by Carl Andre (1964)
2.2.4. Ulrich Ruckriem
As mentioned above, Andre significantly influenced the work of Ruckriem, who was trained as a stonemason (Lee, 2018). After meeting Andre, Ruckriem worked to reveal the material’s inherent nature (Hanson & Herz, 2011). First, he repeatedly placed stones in a very concise shape, as Andre did, and then this time, he used various powers like Sera (Gilbert-Rolfe &
Gehry, 2002). The method was taken (). In other words, he tried to reveal the inherent physical properties of stones through non-active actions such as drilling, breaking, sawing and splitting holes ().
The laid stones reveal all the processes that Ruckriem has done, and as a result, the work is laid out, and the audience can read past events that have taken place through it (Figure 7) (Foster, 2013).
Figure 7: Anröchte Dolomite by Ulrich Ruckriem (1988)
3. Methodology
In this study, various artists of post-minimalism and all the works of Gehry were the study subjects. In the case of post-minimalism, since most artists crossed different genres based on sculpture, not only sculpture works but also video works were included. In Gehry's case, architectural works, furniture design, and object design were included in the analysis. In addition, they were used for work notes or interviews that could most directly reveal their thoughts.
Although the temporal range of the analysis target was not limited, in the case of post- minimalism, the period from the end of the 1960s to the 1970s was the primary study period considering the time of its birth and extinction. In Gehry's case, the 1960s to the present made it time.
As for the study method’s thought and formative properties were grasped by examining post- minimalism. Gehry's work period was divided into four periods based on the general examination of the characteristics of Gehry's architecture and the change in the elements.
Gehry's works were analyzed for each period, focusing on how the post-minimalistic attributes were reflected, and a diachronic analysis was conducted on how those attributes appeared and disappeared or developed over time.
4. Analysis
4.1. Frank Gehry's Architectural Characteristics and Period Classification
Gehry's architecture is famous for its unique form and improvisational style (Gehry et al., 2020). From the beginning, Gehry worked by combining various materials on an improvised basis, without improvised sketches or sketches, instead of the flatwork done by existing architects. Recently, my work mainly uses digital technology for shape creation, but it is also paralleled with three-dimensional sculptural work through a rough model rather than a planar sketch. Therefore, it can be said that Gehry's sculptural work method of juxtaposing various materials has continued (Fixsen, 2014).
Gehry's work has been going on for over half a century based on such a work method. This classification serves as a basis for analyzing post-minimalism properties by period.
First, the period from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s was the period when Gehry returned from Europe to establish his own design office and become independent. . In the mid-1950s, Gehry's architecture, which began in earnest right after he visited Paris, feeling inflamed from the modernism education at the Harvard Graduate School of Architecture, starts by first deviating from European modernism and exploring the actual American architectural language.
Although he did not leave many works during this period, it can be said that it was when Gehry's architecture broke the norms and frameworks sprouted (Fischer, 2012).
Second, the characteristic of Gehry's architectural language from the late 1960s to the 1980s is the juxtaposition and combination of different materials, which can give a glimpse into the exploration of the fundamental properties of materials. The late 1960s was a time when the chaotic society and culture of the United States at the time were projected into art. post- minimalism art criticized the formalism of the previous minimalism and advocated the concept of ‘anti-form.’ Gehry observed this trend of post-minimalism and said, "It looked more direct and adventurous than most of his contemporary architecture." In particular, "His sculptures are primitive, powerful, emotional, and menacing about...". Gehry's work during this period reflected the attributes of later minimalist work, which Gehry would later say "... Similar.” He recalled his interest in the juxtaposition of materials at the time.18) This influence of post- minimalism continued to appear as it was absorbed and transformed into Gehry’s architectural vocabulary.
Second, from the late 1970s to the early 1990s, Gehry mainly focused on the problem of form before the advent of digital architecture. Suppose the previous period was a period focused on investigating material properties. In that case, this period can be a period of inquiry into the condition brought about by the juxtaposition of such materials. In particular, in the early 1980s, Gehry conducted active exchanges and collaborations with the pop artist Oldenburg. The deal with Oldenburg significantly influenced the transition from studying material properties to studying forms. In addition, Gehry's work and thoughts began to have a close relationship with the city around his exchange with him in Oldenburg. It was expressed metaphorically and reflected in the form.
Finally, in the mid-1990s, Gehry again marked a milestone in the history of architecture, introducing digital technology. Of course, the connection of computers with architecture was made with the introduction of CAAD early, but it was only at the level to facilitate the recording of designs. However, in Gehry's case, CATIA, which was used in aircraft design, was applied from the stage of creating the structure itself, the form. In this way, Gehry created unique shapes that were almost impossible to do manually. The change process of Gehry's work considered above is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: The Changing Process of Frank Gehry's Work
Period Characteristics in General Chronological Characteristics
Year
1st Period: Late 1950s - Mid 1960s Efforts to deviate while inheriting the language of European modernism
Start exploring your language while setting up your own office
2nd Period: Late 1960s - 1980s Exploring the fundamental properties of materials
Attention to post-minimalism artists 3rd Period: Late 1970s-1990s Exploring the symbolic form of urban
culture
Exchange and collaboration with Oldenburg
4th Period: Since the mid-1990s Pursuing a unique shape that is impossible by hand
Introduction of digital technology
4.2. Analysis focusing on Post-Minimalistic Attributes
4.2.1. 1st Period (the Late 1950s - Mid 1960s)
It is challenging to connect Gehry with post-minimalism since this period was before post- minimalist activities came to the surface. However, it is clear that both Gehry and the sculptors attempted to break away from European formalist modernism, that is, artificial composition during this period, which has the significance of the 'same starting point.’
Although not many materials remain, the representative works of Gehry during this period include Steve House and Danziger Studio. In the case of Steve's house, designed and manufactured in 1959, the 'overlapping' method, a typical technique of European modernism construction, still appears, showing that it is inheriting European modernism. It already shows a start similar to the representative attribute of post-minimalism in that it emphasizes the physical properties by highlighting the cement mass without finishing treatment. In particular, this work has similarities with Karl Andre and Ruckriem in that it emphasizes the physical properties of simple geometric shapes (Figure 8).
Figure 8: Left: Dolomite by Ruckriem (1972), Right: Danziger Studio by Gehry (1964)
4.2.2. 2nd Period (the Late 1960s - 1980s)
As mentioned earlier, this period was a period in which the activities of post-minimalistic sculptors were prominent. It can be said that Gehry also formed his formative language by completely breaking away from the norms of modernism. In this process, Gehry's architecture strongly reflects the attributes of contemporary post-minimalistic sculpture.
In particular, Gehry's 'Easy Edge’ was produced in 1969. The activities of late minimalist sculptors, including Sera, rose to the surface and have a strong connection with Sera in the following points. First, it is true in that it maximizes the physical properties by using a single material. Sera has always used a single material and no processing or finishing treatment to optimize the transmission of physical properties, and Gehry's chair also conveys the same message. In addition, this chair is not a joint of complex elements like the existing chairs - such as the back or legs - but is the result of creating an 'act' of 'bending' to a single material, that is, by adding a kind of 'transitive verb.’ It can be said that this is consistent with the recognition of works as 'transitive verbs and their results, as shown in the 'verb list' of Sarah's work notes presented earlier (Figure 9).
Figure 9: Left: Easy Edge by Gehry (1969), Right: St. John’s Rotary Arc by Serra (1980)
In another corrugated cardboard chair, 'Experimental Edges,’ produced ten years later, more experimental work was performed than the previous 'Easy Edge.’ It is a work that can be seen as a sculptor rather than an architect in that it is a work made by improvisation.
In addition, compared to the work ten years ago, rough physical properties are emphasized above all else. There is a need. Gehry obtained unexpected wild properties by 'accidental effect' by exposing and laminating the cross-section instead of the corrugated cardboard surface. This respect again shows the sharing of work methods and properties with post-minimalism. In other words, the fact that he pursued unpredictable and accidental effects in his work, and through this, the revealing and emphasizing of the latent physical properties of materials are the main characteristics of contemporary post-minimalism sculptures. For example, Sera maximized the physical properties of a single material in her 1968 ‘Splashing’ work. As mentioned in the previous two chapters, this work is merely an accidental result of combining lead’s ‘plastic’
properties and the act of 'sprinkling.’
Gehry's 'experimental edge' is also emphasized by revealing the cross-section and laminating the rough properties of corrugated cardboard that could not be predicted. As such, expectations for the potential properties of materials are representative properties of late minimalist works, including Serra, and are strongly reflected in Gehry's early works (Figure 10).
Figure 10: Left: Experimental Edge by Gehry (1979), Right: Splashing by Serra (1969)
4.2.3. 3rd Period (the Late 1970s-1990s)
Compared to Gehry's second period, where the attributes of late minimalism were strongly projected, if we look at his works from the late 1970s to the end of the 1980s, which is the third period, a significant change can be seen during this period. In other words, Gehry's interest shifts from emphasizing materiality and process, which are representative properties of late minimalism, to the issue of form. This is presumed to be due to the influence of exchanges with the pop artist Oldenburg. Instead of taking a semi-shape instead of a shape in the previous period, the work method that emphasized rough properties and processes, rather than the work method that emphasized wild properties and functions, suppressed the physical properties and highlighted the shape with a finish such as paint. It seems to have shifted in that direction.
However, although the works of this period seem to have abandoned the representative properties of post-minimalism in that their physical properties are weakened, and the process is not exposed, they show another property instead, which is the construction method post- minimalism. Post-minimalist sculptures deny the organic combination of the mass of modernist sculpture and ‘coexist’ the elements without cohesion. Gehry has already rejected the group’s intrusion, the general construction method of the previous generation of modernists, from his first 'Danziger Studio' and took the technique of independent mass instead. It developed as a metaphor for the individuality and contingency of culture. Among the late minimalist artists, Sera's work also shows contingency and improvisation rather than the 'necessity' of modeling.
The independence of each element was emphasized while inducing. Although the construction method is not perfectly applied to architecture in reality, the structural instability, interrelatedness between components, and contingency are shown in Gehry's Winston Guest House (Figure 11).
Figure 11: Left: Untitled by Serra (1978), Right: Winston Guest House by Gehry (1983-1987)
4.2.4. 4th Period (since the mid-1990s)
Gehry's interest in material properties, which had been extinguished by focusing on form rather than material properties in the previous three periods, is revived in the fourth period, in the period of digital works. However, it can be said that we have now reached the stage of expressing the latent physical properties through a new design rather than revealing the material’s fundamental properties through random effects like the previous works of late minimalism. For example, at the former Guggenheim Museum, Gehry exposed the potential properties of titanium by using it in a new way, like the scales of a fish, as the color core in 'Fish and Snake Lamp' in 1983. In the same vein, we developed the potential of materials by using them in new ways. As such, the investigation of material properties has now transcended
the projection of post-minimalism properties and has been sublimated into Gehry's own language (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Left: Fish & Snake Lamp by Gehry (1983), Right: Guggenheim Museum by Gehry (1998)
Lastly, what cannot be overlooked even in this fourth period, that is, the period when digital technology is actively introduced, is that Gehry still maintains the improvised and sculptural method pursued from the beginning of the work in the production of the study model. The method of improvision combining various materials rather than drawings has been further developed compared to the early days. There is a big difference in the introduced materials, such as moving away from the rough materials used in the early days and using soft and flowing fabrics and curved glass. In addition, this is becoming a reality through combination with advanced digital technology, forming a unique language of Gehry.
As discussed above, the individual attributes of post-minimalistic art appear in Gehry's architecture by period and are summarized in Table 2 below.
Table 2
Attributes of Post-minimalism Time and Aspects in Gehry's Works
1st Period 2nd Period 3rd Period 4th Period Method
of exploring Tectonics
Emphasis on physical properties through the use of a single material
○ ○ ○
Emphasis on physical properties through material-property collision
○ ○
Process Emphasis
Works as ‘transitive verbs and their results
○ ○
Exposure to the process and the pursuit of chance effects
○ ○
Construction Method
Figurative building ○ ○
Synthesis It appears to
be a starting line similar to post-
minimalism
Projection of post- minimalistic attributes appears from multiple angles
It seems to be moving away from the influence of post- minimalism
Progress beyond post- minimalism
5. Conclusion
This study shows that the formative properties of the late minimalist sculptures of the 1960s are projected in various ways in Frank Gehry's architecture, which has been developed with
many constructive changes over about 60 years. This can be summarized and analyzed as follows.
First, before the birth of post-minimalism, the first period of Gehry's architecture already showed similar properties to post-minimalism, indicating that Gehry's architecture and post- minimalism sculpture were starting from the same line.
Second, the second period of Gehry's architecture shared a lot of formative attributes similar to post-minimalism. It is presumed that this was the period when post-minimalism was born and flourished, and Gehry was directly influenced by it.
Third, the post-minimalistic attribute seemed to disappear somewhat in the third period of Gehry's architecture, but it developed into a new aspect in the fourth period. For example, the pursuit of works as 'transitive verbs and their results' disappeared in the third period but developed into 'intransitive history and that moment in the fourth period.
Fourth, it can be seen that Gehry reflects the attributes of post-minimalism that pursued a semi- form and formed his unique formative language through the fusion of these sculptural attributes with his architectural vocabulary.
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