Career Management Skills for TVET Colleges: A Conceptual Review
Simin Ghavifekr*, Ahmad Zabidi Abd Razak, Husaina Banu Kenayathulla
Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Accepted: 15 February 2021 | Published: 1 March 2021
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Developing career management skills is at the helm of the rapid evolution of lifelong learning in the 21st century. This paper aims to present an in-depth discussion of the theoretical and conceptual foundation of career management skills through a comparison of related theories in psychology, individualism, and career development that form the foundation of earlier studies exploring the essential factors defining the parameters of career management skills. Current studies have identified personal management, life and work exploration, and career building as key components in honing one’s career management skills, which provide TVET educators, program developers, and policy makers the necessary guidelines in structuring and implementing relevant lifelong learning programs especially in the Asia- Pacific region. Thus, a critical examination of the concept of career management skills may serve as a reflective starting point in further advancing suitable programs in the curriculum of TVET colleges and in preparing lifelong learners for the ever-changing demands of the 21st century workforce.
Keywords: career management skills, TVET colleges, students’ employability, lifelong learning
___________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
Recently, the world of social life, economy and technology has changed rapidly. These changes lead to redefining the nature of careers. The world of employment also improved significantly.
The required skills for careers are also affected by these changes, especially the changing of the organizational structures. Based on that, individuals must be aware of this radical change in careers and be responsible for their personal development and their job. This awareness will allow people to manage the relationship between the latest changes in the work world and learning new skills. Therefore, individuals must be prepared by equipping themselves with the required skills that allow them to manage their future career.
Most individuals have less knowledge about the career that they need. They select a career based on specific standards without considering the possible interest. Some individuals make an undesirable choice of their future career due to lack of interest or have no insight about themselves (Willner, Gati, & Guan, 2015). Success in any organization can be achieved via career management skills programs. However, identifying appropriate factors suitable for an effective career management program requires contextualisation based on the needs of the society, industry, and learners (Neary, Dodd & Hooley, 2016). Hence, suitable training programs should be established to help individuals to make a decision about future career and planning their career development that considered adequate for their interest and skills.
Notably, the programs in career management skills help individuals to build their future career that match the skills that they developed. These programs also help individuals to identify their values, interest, and skills, and be prepared with the necessary abilities to achieve professional and personal development to make a decision based on the accessible opportunities. Fish and Wood (1993) pointed out that career management programs in any organization are essential in improving the performance of individuals and enhancing their positive attitude. Feldman (1988) stated that career management is a vital component in human resource management that affects any organization and keeps the most talented and skilled individuals. With this significance, keeping up with the demands of the organization, the industry, and the society starts with up-to-date career management skills programs in order to align the learners’ skills with the general needs of the state.
Nevertheless, programs in career management should be developed based on a clear vision of the concepts and theories regarding career, which is currently devoid of a focused universal framing. As governments further develop their lifelong learning programs to enhance their learners’ career-related capabilities, program developers tend to tailor their career management modules based on a localised perspective, which restricts them from extending to trending international perspectives (Neary & Dodd, 2016). Based on a report from the European Union, career management skills program should be further developed not only in depth, but also in breadth by ensuring that learners value both local and global perspectives towards career management (GPSD, 2015). In the Malaysian setting, the 2019 Annual Report from the Ministry of Education cited the necessity for technical and vocational institutions to cater to the increasing number of students by further enhancing their career management skills to be readily capable in their respective industries. These concerns could be addressed by revisiting the foundation of career management skills and the practical application of these factors in developing pedagogical tools and strategies. Therefore, the following sections will discuss further details about concepts and theories of career that provide the foundation for career management skills.
2. Literature Review
Concepts of Career Management Skills (CMS) in Education
The term “career management” was known in 1980 as the policies, procedure, and practices used by the organization to develop and improve their career management (Hustler et al., 1998).
Career management refers to the process that allows individuals to make a decision about their careers and work lives (Greenhaus & Callanan, 1994). Career management skills (CMS) indicate the awareness of individuals of their skills, achievements and strengths, which allow them to assess the information and provide assistance for their career development (Neary et al., 2016). The term CMS used to clarify the skills, attitude, attributes and knowledge of individuals that allow them to manage their career. These skills, knowledge and behaviours are needed to support individuals to be more confidents and effective career managers (Neary et al., 2016). The improvement of CMS is considered the key and the main aims of lifelong guidance. CMS pertains to competencies that allow people to identify their current skills, improve the goals of their career learning, and take any appropriate action to develop their career.
Hooley, Watts, Sultana and Neary (2013) created a framework of CMS and identified three core elements and four different contextual elements of this framework. These core elements are career learning areas, the learning model, and the levels. The Career learning areas refers
skills attitudes, knowledge and attributes. The second element is the learning model that defines the understanding of learning and skills gained, which supports the framework. The last element refers to the levels that describe the development stages that an individual goes through to be a capable career manager. The contextual elements in this framework are resources, service delivery approach, a community of practice, and policy connection. Besides, Neary et al. (2016) indicated that the concept of career management skills covers different aspects including: personal effectiveness, managing relationships, finding work and accessing learning, managing life and career, and understanding the world. Hooley et al. (2013) and Neary et al. (2016) and other scholars indicated that the concept of career management included different elements and aspects, which all focused on developing and enhancing individuals’
career.
Implications of CMS on TVET Teaching and Learning
On a more practical note, the concept and application of developing career management skills are evident in technical and vocational education or TVET. Normah Zakaria et al. (2017) noted that technical and vocational institutions remain to be the ideal venue to acquire key knowledge and hone the skills of students or prospective workers in order to be successful in their respective careers by embodying self-confidence particularly in deciding on their career path appropriately. As an educational institution, TVET colleges formalizes the acquisition and development of career management skills by ensuring that procedures and measures are being taken to ensure proper planning and implementation of career management skills programs.
Initially focusing on enabling students to make the right career choices, TVET institutions allow students to be immersed in learning situations that mould the learners’ personality and sense of self-consciousness that they could apply in making career choices (Damiri & Yahaya, 2004). Since making appropriate career decisions entails the need to consider multiple perspectives, a well-planned career management skills program could enable students to think carefully of their career-related choices through the learning activities and industry-driven programs implemented by the TVET colleges. More importantly, the focus on the development of core abilities to improve personal management, learning and work exploration, and career building could potentially secure the future of the TVET students in the industry as productive employees who have long term career plans.
In the Malaysian setting, the focus on TVET college students’ skills development starts with the essential skills and attitudes to be industry-ready workers. The 4th shift in the Malaysian Education Blueprint (2015-2025) stresses the need for high quality graduates from technical and vocational education and training institutions. According to the 2019 Annual Report from the Ministry of Education, the number of TVET graduates have been on the rise since 2016 and the employability of these graduates range from 80-90% from 2017 to 2019. Although the report highlights the outcome of government initiatives to promote technical and vocational training as a viable alternative to secondary school leavers, measuring the quality of the TVET graduates still remains in question. Thus, by considering the earlier mentioned factors of career management skills, the quality of TVET graduates could be measured according to the extent they have developed such skills.
Furthermore, improving career management skills programs through TVET colleges have a general impact on the economic development of countries. In Europe, the integration of career management skills in the lifelong learning programs of academic and non-academic institutions was deemed to have direct and indirect effects on the mindset of aspiring employees as well as their employability. In the Malaysian context, the Economic Transformation Program clearly stipulated goals that put emphasis on the increase in the number of TVET students in the next
ten years. This is in line with the systemwide economic aspirations of Malaysia to meet the demands of industries especially in the areas of food and beverages, information technology, and automotive where undersupply of capable employees has been a prevailing issue.
Under the Economic Transformation Programme (ETP), Malaysia will require a 2.5-fold increase in TVET enrolment by 2025. At present, however, there is an undersupply of TVET workers in various sectors as identified by the National Key Economic Area (NKEA). Out of the 12 sectors, 10 of which need more graduates who could meet the industry demands. In addition to this issue, other prevailing problems persist in meeting the supply of qualified employees such as matching personal or career expectations with industrial and economic standards. Based on perception, secondary school leavers in Malaysia perceive TVET institutions as a minor option compared to universities or colleges offering degree programs.
Despite this negative impression on TVET colleges, the government has instituted various programs and policies to promote TVET among school leavers and increase the number of qualified and employable graduates. By establishing vocational and technical colleges, the Malaysian Ministry of Education has ensured that TVET could be a viable option in pursuing higher education that is deemed practical and financially beneficial. Likewise, the continuous partnership between the Ministry of Education, other governmental agencies, and the industry ensures that TVET programs are aligned with individual expectations, industry needs, and national aspirations (Malaysia Education Blueprint, 2015) Thus, embedding career management skills and all the relevant factors that come with it creates a better environment of teaching and learning in TVET institutions that could entice prospective students who are willing to build a sustainable career pathway in their respective industries.
Nevertheless, as job acquisition remains to be an essential part in an economically driven society, choosing the right career does not only fall on the hands of the students or prospective employees but also on the shoulders of the government and industry partners. On a more individualistic perspective, the need to embed factors related to career management skills provides opportunities for students to reflect on the extent of their knowledge on their prospective career paths and drive them to be more productive members of the workforce in the future. However, if not addressed accordingly especially among adolescent learners, the dilemma of choosing the right career and adapting in the workplace would hamper personal growth and industrial productivity (Harvey, 2000). Thus, the value of developing career management skills should be personally driven into the students’ mindset through well-crafted programs and meaningful activities.
3. Theoretical Foundation
Career Theories
Several career theories were developed to be used in the field of career management. Some of these theories have a clear structure about career; such as Social Cognitive Career Theory, Traits and Factors Theory, Theory of Work-Adjustment, the Self-Concept Theory of Career Development, Holland’s Theory of Vocational Personalities in Work Environment, Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise, and Theory of Anne Roe (Leung, 2008; Sumari, Md.Khalid & A.Razak, 2015). All of these theories focused on career development, management and career choice for the individuals.
Theory of Work Adjustment
The Theory of Work Adjustment is also called TWA, which developed by (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984) and (Dawis, 2005). It is considered as a class of theory in career development that is focused on people’s differences in tradition of vocational behaviour, which also called the theory of person-environment correspondence. In this theory, career choice and development can be viewed as continual procedures of adjustment in term of the individuals look for work organizations and environments that match their “requirements” in terms of needs, and in turn, companies look for people who have the competences to meet the organisation’s requirements (Leung, 2008). In general, the TWA clarifies the development of career and satisfaction in terms of person-environment correspondence. The TWA provides a template for career guidance professionals to put entry points to help individuals with adjustment concerns and career choice. Leung (2008) pointed out that although the variables of the TWA were developed in the USA, the propositions and plans of the TWA are testable in cross-cultural settings. It is also advisable to be validated before using for hypothesis testing in other cultures.
Self-concept Theory of Career Development
Another theory of career is the Self-concept Theory of Career Development by Super (1990).
Super implied that career development and career choice is a process of implementing and developing a person’s self-concept. The self-concept is a result of complex interactions between several factors, comprising mental and physical growth, environmental characteristics and motivation, and personal experiences (Super, 1990). Various features of Super’s theory are attractive to professionals and researchers of international career guidance since it involves ideas of developmental stages of career, vocational developmental duties, life roles, and career maturity. Super’s theory provides a comprehensive framework to explain the procedure of vocational development that may monitor and guide career involvements and research (Leung, 2008). Internationally, Super’s theory plays a significant role in career development practice.
Holland Theory
Another theory linked to career management skills is Holland theory (1985, 1997). It guided career interest assessment internationally as it offers a simple typology framework on career interest and environments, which can be beneficial in career guidance and counselling. Holland assumed that vocational interest is an expression of an individual’s personality. Holland stated that vocational interests could be comprehended by six different typologies, namely, Realistic (R), Artistic (A), Investigative (I), Social (S), Conventional (C), and Enterprising (E). If an individual’s degree of similarity to the 6 vocational personality types could be evaluated, then it is possible to make a 3-letter code (e.g., SIA, RIA) to express and summarize an individual’s interest of career. The first letter is representing an individual's primary interest type, which plays a significant role in an individual's satisfaction and career choice. The secondary interest types are represented by the second and third letters in the code which play a lesser but still important role in the career choice of the individual.
Gottfredson’s Theory
Besides Super’s and Holland’s theories of career development, Gottfredson’s theory (2005) is a more contemporary contribution to career development. Gottfredson (2005) implied that career choice is a process involving a high level of cognitive competency. Gottfredson’s theory (2005) clarified that there is a dynamic interaction between the genetic makeup of individuals and the environment. The essential characteristics of individuals, such as skills, interests, and values, can be shaped by genetic traits. Therefore, Leung (2008) pointed out that career development is considered as a self-creation activity in which people looked for opportunities
to express their genetic proclivities within the limitations of their cultural environment.
Internationally, Gottfredson’s theory offers unique views to career guidance professionals.
Social Cognitive Career Theory
Another theory related to career is Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (Lent, 2005). It is built on Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy (1977) which claimed an equal relationship between individuals and the environment. It offers three segmental models of career development that seek to clarify the improvement of academic and vocational interest, how people make choices for their educational and career, and the performance and stability of education and career.
These three segmental models are focusing on three essential variables, namely, outcome expectations, self-efficacy, and personal goals. This theory offers a comprehensive framework to realize the development of career choice, career interest, and performance. It provides the main framework for international career guidance practitioners to guide practice and sensible suggestions and hypotheses that could be tested empirically.
Roe’s Career Theory
Roe’s Career Theory focused on the impact of childhood environment on their career choice in the future. This theory built on Maslow’s (1954) theory of need. This theory indicated that several factors are contributing to career choice including genetics, child’s experience, and relationship with parents (Watson, & McMahon, 2008). This theory divided careers to eight classifications, namely: service, contact, business, technology, organization, general culture, outdoor, science, and entertainment and arts. Each classification has six levels created based on complexity and required skill for the career, and focused on capability, responsibility, and skill needed.
Clearly, the above discussion presented in-depth details of the theoretical and conceptual foundation of career management through a comparison of related theories in psychology, individualism, and career development that form the foundation of earlier studies exploring the essential factors defining the parameters of career management skills. These theories contributed in shaping the factors that were determined to influence career management skills.
Factors Influencing Career Management Skills
As a vital element in the field of human resource management, career management presents prospects in terms of retaining and further developing highly skilled and talented workers to keep companies abreast with the socio-economic demands of the society. In effect, career management programs are developed according to the needs of the society in order to hone future workers to fit the industry demands and improve levels of productivity and performance (Feldman, 1988; Fish & Wood, 1993). From this earlier identification of the need for career management skills, past and recent studies have identified key factors that influence the further development of career management skills as illustrated in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Thematic diagram of factors influencing CMS
First, certain career management skills factors pertain to the honing of right attitudes essential in industries in general. Fish and Wood (1993) identified the need to advocate positive attitudes such as corporate loyalty to be inculcated in future and current employees. Loyalty to the company, as a key aspect in career development, was noted to have an impact not only on the turnover rates but also on sustaining the productivity of the company (Fish & Wood, 1993). In addition, career decision making leads to the determination of certain patterns and responsibilities by a particular individual based on the careful consideration of expectations of the society and personal aspirations (Ginzberg, 1971). The ability to make the right career decision could provide a foundation for an aspiring worker to find the right footing and improve the quality of one’s life due to the appropriateness of personal and career choices, which enables an employee to stay in a company in a long term (Yahya, Othman & Meruda, 2004).
Lawson (2004) added that the right attitude to make career choices reflects the way the society creates varied opportunities for their citizens and platforms or venues where they could develop such attitudes. Needless to say, attitudes related to loyalty and decision making stem from personal characteristics shaped by the reality and perceptions emerging from the existing social environment (Sumari, Khalid & Razak, 2015).
Second, on a personal level, factors related to personal life shape career management skills.
These aspects include the following: education, personal goals, financial resources, and work experience. Competence in the job market requires the satisfaction of these personal aspects in order to be successful in the industry, which is driven by economic factors. On a general note, personal aspects stem from an individual’s capacity to muster his or her inherent or acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be a capable employee. Thus, educational background has a crucial role in determining the extent of knowledge, skills, and attitudes of an individual with respect to his or her readiness to be employed in the particular industry (Ginzberg, 1971). In relation to making decisions, education was also noted to have an influence on the level and quality of choices made since the educational pathway a student has chosen moulds the perception of students regarding the industry (Ginzberg, 1971). As such, Bimrose and Hearne (2012) noted that the level of education has a direct impact on the degree of employability in such a way that those who have a higher level of education could have better opportunities in securing appropriate and relevant jobs connected to what they studied.
Third, understanding factors related to career management skills needs a contextual lens to determine its suitability to the demands of the society. In this case, one of the frameworks followed by GPSD (2015) utilises the attitude and personal factors earlier mentioned by specifying three main aspects: personal management, learning and work exploration, and career building. Personal management refers to skills related to organizing one’s expectations in order to make informed choices regarding their respective work. For example, this aspect includes managing goals and time to meet work or personal expectations. Next, learning and work exploration presents opportunities for an individual to grow through certain process and experiences either through self-initiative or the company’s prerogative. In terms of self- initiative, prospective employees should be able to learn how to find a suitable job and negotiate to get that job. Lastly, career building pertains to how an individual could cope in a particular industry by utilizing high order skills and by acknowledging the value of relationships and social dynamics. Under this aspect, an individual is expected to have a clear understanding of the society by considering issues and situations in terms of making decisions.
Furthermore, these factors stem from the society’s expectations of enabling the citizens to be capable and industry-ready individuals regardless of their age, gender, or educational background. In the quest to improve lifelong learning in various institutions, academic and governmental institutions have been pushing for the development of career management skills in order to ensure a quality workforce that could satisfy the needs of their respective industries.
As such, looking at the society’s expectations as a factor in identifying the appropriate and relevant career management skills necessitates institutionalized programs that consider the development of the learners even during their early years (Hooley et al., 2013). In addition, a systemic development of career management skills embedded in the educational aspirations of a country influences the growth of employees to be more active in the workplace and to be more interested in other opportunities related to their career; thus, this enables them to be more competitive particularly in these times when competition among jobhunters are becoming more stringent than ever before (Willner, Gati & Guan, 2015). Moreover, the strengthening of core abilities in academic institutions allows potential employees to formulate their career goals that match the industry needs; thus, their intentions to work are deeply rooted in their values and perceptions according to social norms. As skills are aligned with social expectations, efficiency in attracting and honing human capital could be achieved, which could benefit not only the individual but also his or her dependencies and the community in general. Therefore, carefully designed plans and policies are key components in developing successful career management skills that serve their intentions well (GPSD, 2015).
In discussing the key factors in developing career management skills, program developers and policy makers may refer to the aforementioned factors in ensuring a cohesiveness and effectiveness. Particularly in terms of mentoring potential workers, career development leaders could be able to form groups that focus on ensuring that their pool of employees have the right attitude and personal goals aligned with the aspirations of the company and the industry (Rubio, Robinson & Gabrilove, 2017). Neary and Dodd (2016) highlights the integration of these career management skills factors with the available technical resources so as to facilitate better development of core abilities in their respective industries. Nevertheless, the implications of identifying these factors particularly on teaching and learning in technical and vocational institutions will be addressed in the next section.
4. Methodology
A conceptual review technique was carried out to summarize the findings of many relevant resources to career management skills and its effect on TVET college students’ employability.
This technique helped the researchers to gain relevant knowledge on the topic through a comprehensive, critical and objective analysis. The narrative review as an essential part of this paper helped the authors to establish a theoretical and conceptual framework in regards to study’s focus.
To achieve in-depth analysis on the main elements of the study, the conceptual review has been conducted in a four- step process. For the first step the career management as the general aspect for students future career and CMS (Career Management Skills) as the main focus of the study specifically in terms of TVET college students’ employability was defined.
In the second step, the collected resources were narrow down to highlight the key aspects that influencing applications of CMS for the purpose of fulfilling the needs of TVET college students for quality teaching and learning.
Moreover, step three was consists of a critical analysis on the factors that effect on career management programs for the purpose of improving the level of productivity and performance of the TVET college students accordance to the needs of the society in terms of future workers.
As a result, factors were categorized in three aspects :1) positive attitudes to make a right career choices, 2) personal level that consists of factors related to individuals’ life that shape their career management skills, and 3) the contextual lens to determine career management skills’
suitability to the demands of the nation.
Last but not least, finding a logical structure in terms of the study’s conceptual framework (Figure 1) was the final step in conducting this critical analysis for the paper.
5. Conclusion
The realization and application of the idea behind career management skills can only materialize when personal expectations meet industrial demands. Based on the earlier discussed theories, personal attitudes and perceptions towards oneself and career form the foundation of career management skills. From the understanding of these theories, program developers and curriculum managers could design their career management skills module that is grounded on theories that were elaborated in this study. Since theories are universalised to a certain extent, this ensures a global alignment of perspectives despite the local, industrial focus of the training programme.
In addition, the factors discussed in this paper present a set of guidelines for instructors and curriculum designers, which could be useful in terms of outlining objectives and creating learning activities. For instance, an objective can be set to achieve the development of decision- making skills through in-class activities or projects wherein students can practice micro skills such as critical thinking or verbal communication. Furthermore, as this concept paper explained the implications on TVET institutions, the points established by this paper send a concrete signal to policy makers to continuously evaluate the relevance of their programs and provide financial, logistical, and legal support for TVET institutions to keep up with the demands of the industry and the global needs. Through efficient policy-making, career management skills
programs will continue to be remain relevant in their respective institutions and bring forth state-wide progress through effective pedagogical practices and industrial application.
Although this concept paper has comprehensively discussed and established the significance of the theories and concepts related to career management skills, the real test of effectivity lies in its application. Since attitude and perceptions build the foundation of developing these skills, the thrust of academic institutions and government agencies should be inclined towards providing opportunities and environments that shape a career-driven mindset. As this paper explored the theories and factors influencing career management skills, further studies should be conducted to continuously examine how these factors are being implemented in TVET programs and how these benefit the students, employees, and the industry as a whole.
Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Faculty of Education, University of Malaya research grant GPF012O-2018.
References
Babenko. O., Sudha. K., Lia. D., Lindsey. N, & Vijay D. (2017). Lifelong learning along the education and career continuum: meta-analysis of studies in health professions. J Adv Med Educ Prof. 2017 Oct. 5(4), 157–163.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Cassidy T., Wright L. (2008). Graduate employment status and health: a longitudinal analysis of the transition from student. Soc. Psychol. Educ. 11, 181–191. 10.1007/s11218-007- 9043-x
Damiri, N., & Yahaya, A. B. (2004). Ciri-Ciri Personaliti Dalam Pemilihan Kerjaya Pelajar, Gaya Pembelajaran Pelajar Dan Hubungannya Dengan Pencapaian Akademik. Master Thesis. UTM JB.
Dawis, R. V. (2005). The Minnesota theory of work adjustment. In S. D. Brown & R. T. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 3–
23). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Dawis, R. V., & Lofquist, L. H. (1984). A psychological theory of work adjustment.
Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Department of Employment and Training. European Journal of Social Sciences . 9 ( 1) , 147- 160.
Dries, N. (2011). The meaning of career success: Avoiding reification through a closer inspection of historical, cultural, and ideological contexts. Career Development International, 16(4), 364– 384.
Feldman, D. C. (1988). Managing careers in organizations. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman &
Company.
Fish, A., & Wood, J. (1993). HRM and international expatriate management: a strategic link for Australian business. International Journal of Career Management, 5(4), 25-36.
Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Applying Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise in career guidance and counseling. In S. D. Brown & R. T. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 71–100). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Greenhaus, J.H & Callanan, G.A. (1994). Career Management. 2nd ed., The Dryden Press, Fort Worth, TX.
Guidelines for Policies and Systems Development (GPSD) for Lifelong Guidance. (2015). A
Halpern. D., & Hakel. M. (2010). Applying the science of learning to the University and beyond: teaching the long-term retention and transfer. Change Mag. High. Learn. 35, 36–
41 .
Hamzah, R., Bakar, A., & Kazilan, F. (2006). Pengintegrasian kemahiran employability dalam Harvey, L. (2000). New realities: The relationship between higher education and employment.
Tertiary Education & Management, 6(1), 3-17.
Holland, J. L. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Holland, J. H. (1997).
Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Hooley, T., Watts, A. G., Sultana, R. G. and Neary, S. (2013). The 'blueprint' framework for career management skills: a critical exploration. British Journal of Guidance &
Counselling, 41(2), 117-131.
Hustler, D., Carter, K., Halsall, R., Ward, R., & Watts, A.G. (1998). Developing career management skills in higher education. Cambridge: National Institute for Careers Educa- tion and Counselling. REIC, 427 (163), 1-9
Jackson D.,& Wilton N. (2016). Developing career management competencies among undergraduates and the role of work-integrated learning. Teaching in Higher Education.
21(3), 1-21 • DOI: 10.1080/13562517.2015.1136281.
Jarvis P. (2003). Career Management Skills Keys to a Great Career and a Great Life. Canadian Career Development Foundation November , 17-18, 2003.
Jasmi A. Talib, Amla Salleh, Salleh, Amat, Simin Ghavifekr & Azlinda, M. Ariff. (2014).
Effect of career education module on career development of community college students.
International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 15(1), 37-55. DOI 10.1007/s10775-014-9279-x, ISSN 0251-2513.
Lawson, R. (2004). Work futures: Employability skills and attributes. Queensland Government,
Lent, R. W. (2005). A social cognitive view of career development and counseling. In S. D.
Brown & R. T. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 101–127). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Leung, S. A. (2008). The big five career theories. In International handbook of career guidance (pp. 115-132). Springer, Dordrecht.
Malaysia Education Blueprint (2015). Executive Summary Malaysia Education Blueprint (2015-2025)(Higher Education). Ministry of Education, Putra Jaya.
McGartland. R., D.,Georgeanna., F. W. B. Robinson, Janice, G., & Emma. A. M.(2017).
Creating effective career development programs. J Clin Transl Sci. 1(2), 83–87.
Muratori. M. C., & Smith., C. K. (2015). Guiding the Talent and Career Development of the Gifted Individual. Journal of Counseling & Development, 93(2), 173-184.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2015.00193.x.
Neary, S. & Dodd, V. (2016) . Understanding career management skills: findings from the first phase of the CMS LEADER project'. Derby: University of Derby.
Neary, S., Dodd, V., & Hooley, T. (2016). Understanding Career Management Skills: Findings from the First Phase of the CMS Leader Project. Derby: International Centre for Guidance Studies, University of Derby. Derby.
Ng, T. W., Eby, L. T., Sorensen, K. L., & Feldman, D. C. (2005). Predictors of objective and subjective career success: A meta‐analysis. Personnel psychology, 58(2), 367-408.
Nie B Huang X, Xue F, Chen J, Liu X, Meng Y, Huang J,(2018). A comparative study of vocational education and occupational safety and health training in China and the UK. Int J Occup Saf Ergon. 24(2), 268-277. doi: 10.1080/10803548.2016.1270042.
Orpen, C. (1994). The Effects of Organizational and Individual Career Management on Career
Success. International Journal of Manpower, 15(1), 27–37.
Pavlova. M. (2014). TVET as an important factor in country’s economic development.
Springerplus. 2014; 3(Suppl 1): K3.Published online 2014 Dec 4. doi: 10.1186/2193- 1801-3-S1-K3.
Pembelajaran: Pandangan pengajar pusat latihan teknikal dan vokasional di Malaysia. Paper presented at the Prosiding seminar kebangsaan teknik dan vokasional.
Rubio D., Robinson. G.F. W. B., Gabrilove J. & Meaghe E. (2017). Creating effective career development programs. J Clin Transl Sci. 1(2), 83–87.
Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., Holtom, B. C., & Pierotti, A. J. (2013). Even the best laid plans sometimes go askew: career self-management processes, career shocks, and the decision to pursue graduate education. The Journal of Applied Psychology. 98(1), 169–82.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030882.
Sumari, M., Md.Khalid, N., & A.Razak, N. A. (2015). Teori dan Amalan Kaunseling Kerjaya (1st ed.). Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Super, D. W. (1969). Vocational development theory. The Counseling Psychologist, 1, 2–30.
Super, D. W. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16, 282–298.
Vertsberger, D., & Gati, I. (2015). The effectiveness of sources of support in career decision- making: A two-year follow-up . Journal of Vocational Behavior, 89, 151–161.
Watson, M., & McMahon, M. (2008). Children's career development: Metaphorical images of theory, research, and practice. The Career Development Quarterly, 57(1), 75-83.
Willner, T., Gati, I., & Guan, Y. (2015). Career decision-making profiles and career decision- making difficulties: A cross-cultural comparison among US, Israeli, and Chinese samples.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 88(2015), 143–153.
Wilton, N. (2011). Do employability skills really matter in the graduate labour market? The case of business and management graduates. Work, Employment and Society, 25 (1), 85- 100.
Zakaria Normah, Yamin Azlin & Maarof Rosmawati . (2017). Career Management Skills Among Vocational Students. International Research and Innovation Summit (IRIS2017), doi:10.1088/1757-899X/226/1/012187.
Zakaria, N., Hamzah, N., Yamin, N. A., Hamidon, N. I., Ariffin, A., & Rubani, S. N. K. (2019).
Competency in Career Management among Technical University Students. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 9(13), 173–182.
