International Journal of Business and Economy (IJBEC) eISSN: 2682-8359 [Vol. 4 No. 1 March 2022]
Journal website: http://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/ijbec
FACTORS AFFECTING PANIC BUYING WHICH LEAD TO IMPULSE BUYING AMONG CONSUMERS IN MALAYSIA
DURING SECOND PHASE OF MCO IN 2021
Nur Hazrini Mohd Zahari1*, Nik Nuraisyah Nik Azmi2, Siti Nor Adawiah Hussin3 and Wan Nur Izni Wan Ahmad Kamar-Bodian4
1 2 Faculty of Business and Finance, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Perak, MALAYSIA
3 Faculty of Accountancy, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Kelantan, MALAYSIA
4 Institute de Langues, Groupe Ecole Supérieur de Commerce de Dakar, Dakar, SENEGAL
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Article Information:
Article history:
Received date : 16 March 2022 Revised date : 19 March 2022 Accepted date : 22 March 2022 Published date : 30 March 2022
To cite this document:
Mohd Zahari, N. H., Nik Azmi, N. N., Hussin, S.N. A., &Wan Ahmad Kamar-Bodian, W. N. I. (2022).
FACTORS AFFECTING PANIC BUYING WHICH LEAD TO IMPULSE BUYING AMONG CONSUMERS IN MALAYSIA DURING SECOND PHASE OF MCO IN 2021. International Journal of Business and Economy, 4(1), 210-219.
Abstract: The declaration of lockdown during Covid-19 pandemic has resulted to the changes in the consumer behaviour. With the fear of not knowing what would happen in the future, consumers around the globe started to engage in panic buying and emptying the shelves in the supermarkets to stock up their daily necessities at home. In Malaysia, after the first phase of movement control order (MCO) which was declared in 2020, the Malaysian prime minister has again announced to declare the second phase of MCO in 2021.
Even though Malaysian has gone through the first phase of MCO and said to have experienced on handling it, there were consumers who were still spotted to engage in panic buying. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the factors which trigger the panic buying among Malaysian during the second phase of MCO in 2021.
This paper would like to include the theory of planned behaviour and fear appeal and government trust as to investigate the factors which influence the consumers to engage in the panic buying during the second phase of MCO in Malaysia.
Keywords: panic buying, Covid-19, theory of planned behaviour, fear appeal, government trust.
1. Introduction
The announcement of Covid-19 virus in 2020 which was began in Wuhan, China has resulted to the changes in the normal course of living among people all over the world. People were introduced to the new normal by practicing social distancing and mandated to wear mask when in public and countries around the globe have gone under lockdown. As a result, consumers have been involved in panic buying for weeks around February and March 2020 in response to the prolonged imposed of lockdown and fears about the future (INSEAD, 2020). It has been suggested by previous research that consumer behaviour can change due to several reasons for example personal, economic, psychological, contextual and social factors. However, disease outbreak or natural disaster can give more significant impact to the consumer behaviour. In a situation such as Covid-19 outbreak which disrupt social lives and threaten individual’s health, it has been proven that it can lead to strong consumer behaviour changes (Di Crosta et al., 2021) which also has resulted to consumers to panic buy more things than usual (Lins &
Aquino, 2020).
On 16 March 2020, Malaysian Prime Minister has declared that the entire country to be on the Movement Control Order (MCO) starting from 18 March 2020 to 31 March 2020 due to Covid- 19 pandemic. The MCO was imposed under the Prevention and Control of Infectious Disease Act 1988 and as well as the Police Act 1967 in Malaysia. All the mass gathering for religious, sport, social and cultural activities were banned under this MCO as well as the closure of all schools and education institutions as well as all the government and private sector premises to cease the operation. However, the essential services including the retail and food supply were allowed to continue to be operated as usual as to provide the daily necessities to the public.
Despite of the announcement that the essential services will be continued operating as usual, the announcement of MCO has led to consumers to engage in panic buying nationwide which left the supermarket shelves bare of everything from toilet paper to canned goods (“14-Day Movement Control Order Begins Nationwide on Wednesday,” 2020).
In 2021, again due to rising of Covid-19 cases in Malaysia, the Prime Minister of Malaysia once again announced the MCO from 12 May 2021 to 7 June 2021 (Chan & Yusof, 2021). This announcement has once again sparked the panic among all Malaysians. As a result of the announcement, it was reported that some of the consumers were spotted to still engage in panic buying (Zainal et al., 2021) even though Malaysians have been under the MCO for more than one year and already have the experience to deal with the situations. Therefore, understanding the needs and consumer behaviour during the disease outbreak is important to guide the consumers to respond to their actual needs and feelings to face future pandemics or emergencies and to avoid panic buying if the same thing to happen again in the future. This is to ensure that consumers will not purchase more than their needs as hoarding by consumers would lead to supply disruption during the disease outbreak which at the end of the day will create panic among other consumers (“Malaysians Urged to Avoid Panic Buying Ahead of Planned Stricter Covid-19 MCO Measures,” 2021).
Besides, the act of purchasing more than needs can be concluded as impulse buying among the consumers. Rook (1987) defined impulse buying as unplanned buying characterized by a hedonically complicated, irresistible, abrupt behaviour with inadequate deliberation, selfless and alternatives contemplation. Therefore, this study is aimed to highlight the factors which lead to panic buying and lead to impulse buying behaviour among consumers in Malaysia due to disease outbreak such as Covid-19.
2. Literature Review
Panic Buying and Impulsive Buying Behaviour During Pandemic
Impulse buying has been defined as spontaneous, immediate and unplanned purchase characterized by a sudden, irresistible, strong, sustained and immediate urge to purchase a product (Rook & Fisher, 1995). Impulse buying behaviour is an emotion-related behaviour which can be influenced by the self-esteem, keeping the self-image or social comparison.
Besides that, it can also be influenced by the emotions at the time of shopping (Youn & Faber, 2020) and the involvement of certain product. In the context of pandemic Covid-19 outbreak, people can engage in impulse buying due to the information anxiety and stressed as a result of public pressure. Therefore, people engage in the impulse buying to comfort themselves (Xiao et al., 2020). During the pandemic, impulse buying can be seen in panic buying which result to the stock-piling of goods especially food and daily essential products (Wang & Na, 2020).
Panic buying are normal human reactions when the people perceive that the supply will be disrupted as a result of natural disaster (Wang & Na, 2020) which can be due to various reasons.
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Theory of planned behaviour was developed by Ajzen (2005) as the further extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). This theory was developed to investigate the intention of an individual to behave. Since it was developed, this theory has been used successfully in various context to understand and predict human behaviour (Petra N. C. & Melanie, 2018) under various fields such as marketing, health sector and tourism sector (Pahrudin et al., 2021).
This theory suggests that the stronger a person’s intention to display a certain behaviour, the more successful that individual is to carry out the behaviour. Under this theory, a person’s intention to behave is influenced by three factors which are attitude towards behaviour, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control.
The first determinant of the theory which is attitude towards behaviour explains whether people have favourable or unfavourable evaluation of the particular behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). On the other hand, the second determinant of the theory which is subjective norms explains the social pressures mostly from the people who are close to the individual to influence that individual to either perform or not to perform certain action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The third determinant of the theory is perceived behavioral control which refers to perception of an individual on the ease or difficulty of performing certain behavior. If an individual is confident in performing a specific task, it is highly certain that the individual will choose to perform the task (Ajzen, 1991).
Attitude
Attitude can be defined by the extent to which a person has favourable or unfavourable evaluation of the behaviour in question (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). It is suggested that if an individual belief that carrying out certain behaviour will result to positive impact (Saad &
Haniffa, 2014), that individual will have more favourable attitude towards certain behaviour.
This will increase the likelihood of that person to carry out the behaviour in question (Md Husin
& Ab Rahman, 2016). Usually, to determine the positive or negative impact of certain behaviour, an individual will assess the cost-benefit of carrying out the behaviour. It was suggested that attitude on the behaviour is one of the major internal influences which affect the decision making of consumers (Abou-Youssedd et. al., 2015) which has given a significant
positive relationship with consumers intention in many studies on consumers behaviour previously (Lujja, Mohammad & Hassan, 2016). It means that, attitude concept is highly depending on the personal assessment of an individual about the particular behaviour after positive or negative evalution ((Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). In the context of Covid-19 pandemic, it is suggested that if the consumers believe by engaging in the panic buying will give the positive impact and comfort in their life in the future during the MCO, it is highly likely that the consumers will engage with the panic buying regardless of announcement made by the government which still allows the public to go out to buy the necessities and the non- disclosure of essential services during the MCO.
Subjective Norms
Subjective norms is the second determinant of the theory of planned behaviour which is used to test the intention of an individual to carry out certain behaviour. Subjective norms can be defined as the social pressure on an individual to carry out certain behaviour (Ajzen, 1991).
The social pressure is likely to be coming from the people who are close to the individual. It is suggested that the perception of the people who are close to an individual is important to influence the behaviour of the individual. This can also be defined as peer pressure which refers to whether those around the individual strongly influence the individual to participate or to have the intention to participate in such behaviour. These people may include partners, friends, family, colleagues, community leaders and other notable people which whom the individual feels to be important in their life or to have important perception of their behaviour (Ibrahim, Fisol & Othman, 2017). Therefore, in the context of Covid-19 pandemic, it is suggested that, if the people who are close to an individual belief that by engaging in the panic buying is good for them or people who are close to the individual are engaging in the panic buying themselves, it is believed that the particular individual will also engage in the panic buying.
Perceived Behavioral Control
Perceived behavioral control refers to perception of an individual on the ease or difficulty of performing certain behaviour. If an individual is confident in performing a specific task, it is highly certain that the individual will choose to perform the task (Ajzen, 1991). This suggests that a person will choose to carry out certain behaviour depending on their capabilities to carry out the behaviour. Besides, the availability of resources and opportunities also can be the reasons to influence the capabilities of an individual to carry out certain behaviour (Keen et.
al, 2000). On the other hand, Mathieson (1991) suggested that a person’s perceived behavioral control is determined by the individual’s perception of the availability of skills, resource and opportunities and the importance of those skills, resources and opportunities to perform certain task. Therefore, if an individual has enough resources and opportunities such as money and time to engage in the panic buying as the Malaysian government declared that Malaysian to be under MCO for the second time, it is highly likely that the individual will engage in panic buying.
Fear Appeals
Addo et. al (2020) suggested that fear is an instrument to safeguard a person from a situation which endangering life. Fear appeals on the other hand are persuasive messages that attempt to trigger fear by emphasizing on the potential danger and harm on certain individual if that individual does not act in accordance with the recommendation of the messages (Maddux &
Rogers, 1983). This message is usually used in public health and advertising campaign with
the intention to reduce the risky attitudes, intentions or behavior of consumers. An example of fear appeal on advertising campaign to promote public health is the used of pictures of diseased lungs or mouth cancer on cigarette packets with the intention to discourage the consumers from buying cigarettes which can harm people’s health (Naeem, 2021).
Some fear appeals clearly mention about death and it is suggested when the public are reminded about the mortality by being exposed to the concept of death, they often become motivated to act accordingly as to reduce the anxiety which is related to death (Shehryar & Hunt, 2005). In the case of Covid-19 outbreak, with the exposure of the rate of mortality being updated on the daily basis, the public will have to avoid, deal with, or respond to it (Addo et al., 2020). With the government encouragement to stay at home during the pandemic Covid-19 and the fear of disease among the public can lead to panic buying behaviour which would lead to impulsive buying behaviour.
Social Media Engagement
Social media has acted as practical form to spread the public awareness on Covid-19 during the pandemic (Gough et al., 2017). The public depends heavily on the social media to keep them updated with the information of Covid-19 as the public has been advised to keep the social distancing and to stay at home. However, there are also the setbacks of social media as these medium of communication are unmoderated with certainty of misinformation and false news to be shared by the users without control (Saahar et al., 2021). In the age of social media nowadays, the anxiety about the Covid-19 spreads faster than the virus itself, resulting the public panic worldwide (Muwahed, 2020). According to (Wong, 2020), the bad information can move even faster than the bad pathogen as millions were exposed to false information about the Covid-19 virus when the virus was first detected in the late 2019.
The World Heatlh Organisation (WHO) has even termed the misleading information as Infomedic which means “an excessive amount of misinformation, disinformation and rumours that make it difficult to identify the reliable sources of information”. During the commencement of the MCO, the fake news and misinformation which has been spread on social media has created the anxiety and uncertainty among the public (“Coronavirus Misinformation Fuels Panic in Asia,” 2020). It was reported that the misleading information has affected the general consumers and the buying patterns of United States citizens and has induced panic to the consumers (Ahmed et al., 2020). Therefore, social media engagement is believed to be one of the reasons for consumers to engage in panic buying during the Covid- 19 pandemic especially during the second phase of MCO which was declared in Malaysian in 2021.
Government Trust
Trust in government represents the confidence and satisfaction of people with government performance and perceived credibility of government (Zmerli & Van der Meer, 2017). The government policies are considered effective only if it comes with the public trust and support which can be secured by timely, transparent, and truthful government messaging (Boin, Stern and Sundelius, 2016). This is because to ensure the effectiveness of the implementation of government policies and measures control during the Covid-19, it requires the compliance from the public. During pandemic, public are looking for who to listen to and who to believe and trust is very vital which requires the political leaders to provide full support among the public to manage the crisis (Liu et al., 2021). Based on research done by Rothstein and Stölle (2008)
trust in government agencies and institutions in a crisis is contingent upon impartiality, efficiency and accountability which influence level of social capital and generalized trust.
Besides, trust is important for the success of wide range of public policies that depend on the behavioral responses from the public. For example, public trust leads to greater compliance with regulations and the tax system.
During all stages of the Covid-19 pandemic, including containment, mitigation and recovery, trust in public institutions has been vital for governments’ ability to rapidly and to secure citizen support. It also matters for planning and implementing an inclusive recovery from the covid- 19 emergency (OECD, 2020). During H1N1 pandemic, trust was shown to be fundamental to public acceptance of government recommendations (Prati, Pietrantoni and Zani, 2011). It also has happened during the Ebola epidemic which has made the public to disregard the government guidelines on domestic precautions and social distancing which at the end caused the infections to spread (Blair, Morse and Tsai, 2017).
However, during the global pandemic in 2020, the OECD has reported that only 51% of citizens trusted their government (OECD, 2020). Besides, the Singapore news has published that the
‘irrational’ panic buying among the citizen was resulting from the lack of trust in the government to tell the citizen what the right thing is to do especially during the crisis. The lack of trust on the government has resulted to the trust on the rumors and misinformation about the lack of supplies which at the end of the day resulted to the panic buying. However, even though with the information from the government and even though if the government does tell the citizen what to do, the fundamental question is still whether the citizen can trust the government during crisis (Wong, 2020). Previous research has found that the government poor performance and unresponsiveness of political institutions during the crisis are the causes of the decreasing level of trust (Ervasti et al, 2019) especially during pandemic. Therefore, it is suggested that the trust on government plays crucial role to contribute to the panic buying among public during the movement control order in Malaysia for the second time in 2021. This is because even though the public has gone through the first phase of the movement control order in 2020 and have the experience in facing it, the public was still seen to be involved in panic buying when the Malaysian government announced for the movement control order for the second time in 2021 (Zainal et al., 2021). It can be suggested that the trust of public in the government is in question.
Proposed Conceptual Framework
Figure 1: Factors Influencing Panic Buying Among Malaysians During the Second Phase of MCO due to Covid-19
Figure 1 represents the possible factors to influence the panic buying among Malaysians after the announcement of second phase of MCO in 2021. The factors might include the attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control which were adopted from the theory of planned behaviour and included with fear appeal, social media engagement and government trust.
3. Discussion and Conclusion
The strike of Covid-19 pandemic has forced the government to declare to the nation with the new rules and new normal to be adopted in the daily lives. In the earlier stage of the pandemic, most of the countries worldwide were declared to be under the lockdown and restriction of movements. The changes in government policy and announcement due to pandemic has resulted to the drastic changes in consumer behaviour. People were shocked and surprise with the sudden announcement and started to react to protect themselves as a result of fear and worry of not knowing what would happen in the future thus engage in panic buying to stock themselves up. Besides, the engagement with the social media has made it worst as the news travel on social media was so fast and has influenced the people to listen to the advice of people, they follow on their social media instead of to listen to the government announcement and advices. Moreover, as a result of panic buying, it may lead to the impulse buying behaviour as it was unplanned, spontaneous, immediate and engaged as a result of abrupt behaviour with inadequate deliberation. It was considered normal to see people conduct in the panic buying behaviour during the first phase of the MCO in Malaysia as it was still new but when people were still engaged in the panic buying behaviour during the second phase of MCO in 2021, it raised some questions to be answered as for the reasons why people still engaged in the panic buying even though the Malaysian already has the experience going through the MCO in 2020.
Therefore, it is very important to figure out the reasons why people still engage with panic buying to ensure that people can obey to the government announcements and rules in order to stop the disease outbreak. This is to also make sure that there will be no disruption in the supply of necessities and hoarding behaviour.
Attitude
Subjective Norms
Perceived Behavioral Control
Fear Appeal
Social Media Engagement
Government Trust
Panic Buying
References
14-day Movement Control Order begins nationwide on Wednesday. (2020, March 16). New Straits Times Online. https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2020/03/575180/14-day- movement-control-order-begins-nationwide-wednesday
Abou-Youssef, M. M. H., Kortam, W., Abou-Aish, E. & El-Bassiouny, N. (2015). Effects of Religiosity on Consumer Attitudes Towards Islamic Banking in Egypt. International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 33 Issue 6, pp. 786-807.
Addo, P. C., Jiaming, F., Kulbo, N. B., & Liangqiang, L. (2020). COVID-19: fear appeal favoring purchase behavior towards personal protective equipment. The Service Industries Journal, 40(7–8), 471–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1751823
Ahmed, R. R., Streimikiene, D., Rolle, J. A., & Duc, P. A. (2020). The COVID-19 Pandemic and the Antecedants for the Impulse Buying Behavior of US Citizens. Journal of Competitiveness, 12(3), 5–27. https://doi.org/10.7441/joc.2020.03.01
Ajzen, I. (1991). The Theory of Planned Behaviour. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Process, Vol. 50 No. 2, pp. 179-211.
Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff, NJ.
Blair, R. A., B. S. Morse and L. L. Tsai (2017). ‘Public health and public trust: survey evidence from the Ebola virus disease epidemic in Liberia’, Social Science & Medicine, 172, pp.
89–97.
Boin, A., E. Stern and B. Sundelius (2016). The Politics of Crisis Management: Public Leadership under Pressure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Bonneux, L., & van Damme, W. (2006). An iatrogenic pandemic of panic. BMJ, 332(7544), 786–788. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.332.7544.786
Chan, D., & Yusof, T. A. (2021, May 10). Nationwide MCO 3.0 from May 12. NST Online.
https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2021/05/689347/nationwide-mco-30-may-12 Coronavirus misinformation fuels panic in Asia. (2020, May 29). The Straits Times.
https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/coronavirus-misinformation-fuels-panic-in-asia
Di Crosta, A., Ceccato, I., Marchetti, D., La Malva, P., Maiella, R., Cannito, L., Cipi, M., Mammarella, N., Palumbo, R., Verrocchio, M. C., Palumbo, R., & di Domenico, A.
(2021). Psychological factors and consumer behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic.
PLOS ONE, 16(8), e0256095. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256095
Ervasti, H., Kouvo, A., & Venetoklis, T. (2019). Social and institutional trust in times of crisis:
Greece, 2002–2011. Social Indicators Research, 141, 1207–1231.
Gough, A., Hunter, R. F., Ajao, O., Jurek, A., McKeown, G., Hong, J., Barrett, E., Ferguson, M., McElwee, G., McCarthy, M., & Kee, F. (2017). Tweet for Behavior Change: Using Social Media for the Dissemination of Public Health Messages. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 3(1), e14. https://doi.org/10.2196/publichealth.6313
Ibrahim, M. A., Fisol, W. N. M. & Othman, Y. (2017). Customer Intention on Islamic Home Financing Products: An Application of Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB).
Mediterranean Journal of Social Science, Vol 8. No. 2, pp. 77-86.
INSEAD. (2020). The Psychology behind coronavirus panic buying. Retrieved March 29,2020.
https://knowledge.insead.edu/node/13451/pdf
Keen, C., Ruyter, K.D., Wetzels, M. & Feinberg, R. (2000). An Empirical Analysis of Consumer Preferences Regarding Alternative Service Delivery Modes in Emerging Electronic Service Markets. Quarterly Journal of Electronic Commerce, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp.
31-47.
Larson, L. R. L., & Shin, H. (2018). Fear During Natural Disaster: Its Impact on Perceptions of Shopping Convenience and Shopping Behavior. Services Marketing Quarterly, 39(4), 293–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332969.2018.1514795
Lins, S., & Aquino, S. (2020). Development and initial psychometric properties of a panic buying scale during COVID-19 pandemic. Heliyon, 6(9), e04746.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04746
Liu, J., Shahab, Y., & Hoque, H. (2021). Government Response Measures and Public Trust during the COVID‐19 Pandemic: Evidence from Around the World. British Journal of Management. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12577
Lujja, S., Mohammad, M. O. & Hassan, R. (2016). Modelling Public Behavioral Intention to Adopt Islamic Banking in Uganda: The Theory of Reasoned Action. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, Vol. 9 Issue 4, pp. 583-600.
Malaysians urged to avoid panic buying ahead of planned stricter Covid-19 MCO measures.
(2021, May 22). The Straits Times. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/malaysians- urged-to-avoid-panic-buying-ahead-of-planned-stricter-covid-19-mco-measures.
Mathieson, K. (1991). Predicting User Intentions: Comparing the Technology Acceptance Model with the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Information Systems Research. Vol. 2 No.
3, pp. 173-191.
Md Husin, M. & Ab Rahman, A. (2016). Do Muslims Intend to Participate in Islamic Insurance?:AnalysisFrom Theory of Planned Behaviour, Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research, Vol. 7 Issue: 1, pp.42-58.
Muwahed, J. (2020, March 15). Coronavirus pandemic goes viral in the age of social media, sparking anxiety. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/coronavirus-pandemic- viral-age-social-media-sparking-anxiety/story?id=69580796
OECD (2020). ‘Official reports’. Available at https://www.oecd.org/gov/trust-in- government.htm
Pahrudin, P., Chen, C. T., & Liu, L. W. (2021). A modified theory of planned behavioral: A case of tourist intention to visit a destination post pandemic Covid-19 in Indonesia.
Heliyon, 7(10), e08230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08230
Perugini, M., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2001). The role of desires and anticipated emotions in goal- directed behaviours: Broadening and deepening the theory of planned behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40(1), 79–98. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466601164704 Prati, G., L. Pietrantoni and B. Zani (2011). ‘Compliance with recommendations for pandemic
influenza H1N1 2009: the role of trust and personal beliefs’, Health Education Research, 26, pp. 761–769.
Rook, D.W. (1987), “The buying impulse”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp.
189-199.
Rook, D. W., & Fisher, R. J. (1995). Normative Influences on Impulsive Buying Behavior.
Journal of Consumer Research, 22(3), 305. https://doi.org/10.1086/209452
Rothstein, B. and D. Stolle (2008). ‘The state and social capital: an institutional theory of generalized trust’, Comparative Politics, 40, pp. 441–459.
Saad, R. A. J. &Haniffa, R. (2014). Determinants of Zakah (Islamic Tax) Compliance Behaviour. Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research, Vol. 5 Issue: 2, pp. 182- 193.
Saahar, S., Mohd Azlan, N. A., Najib, N. N. S., & Suhaimi, N. I. A. (2021). The relationship between social media panic of covid-19 and facebook users psychological state. Asian Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 3(2), 92–107.
Shehryar O, Hunt D. A terror management perspective on the persuasiveness of fear appeals.
Journal of Consumer Psychology. 2005; 15:275–287. DOI: 10.1207/s15327663jcp1504_2
Survey: More Malaysians shopping online. (2021, June 8). The Star.
https://www.thestar.com.my/business/business-news/2021/06/08/survey-more- malaysians-shopping-online
Wang, H. H., & Hao, N. (2020). Panic buying? Food hoarding during the pandemic period with city lockdown. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 19(12), 2916–2925.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s2095-3119(20)63448-7
Wong, C. (2020, February 26). COVID-19: Panic buying shows “lack of trust” in government’s crisis messaging, says Yaacob Ibrahim. Yahoo News Singapore.
https://malaysia.news.yahoo.com/covid-19-panic-buying-shows-lack-of-trust-in- governments-crisis-messaging-says-yaacob-ibrahim-115057148.html
Wong, J. C. (2020, August 9). As the coronavirus spreads, misinformation is spreading even
faster. The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jan/31/coronavirus-misinformation- spread-facebook-conspiracy-theories
Xiao, H., Zhang, Z., & Zhang, L. (2020). A diary study of impulsive buying during the COVID- 19 pandemic. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01220-2
Youn, S., & Faber, R. J. (2000). Impulse buying: Its relation to personality traits and cues.
Advances in Consumer Research, 27, 179-185.
Zainal, F., Chern, L. T., N, T., Loh, I., Devi, V., & Carvalho, M. (2021, May 29). Panic buying
still a common sight. The Star.
https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2021/05/30/panic-buying-still-a-common-sight Zmerli, S., & Van der Meer, T. W. (2017). Handbook on political trust. Cheltenham, UK:
Edward Elgar Publishing.
