Framing ‘China’ in Malaysian Political Sphere: A Content Analysis of China Related Reports During The 2018 Election of
The Star
Duan Kuan1, Nurul Ain Mohd Hasan1*
1 FBMK, University Putra Malaysia, KL, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]. my
Accepted: 15 August 2021 | Published: 1 September 2021
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Political change events play a significant role in drawing media coverage and, by extension, impact on international public relations. This paper aims to explore how Malaysian media outlet The Star frames China’s national image during the major political change in 2018 by drawing upon framing theory. This study provides insight on the effects of Malaysian mega political change on the reported national image of a stakeholder country. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed and future research directions are provided.
Keywords: China’s National Image, News Framing, International Public Relations, The Star ___________________________________________________________________________
1. Background
A country’s national image may influence its position in global competitiveness (Oliveira, 2021), so, it is important to pay attention to how foreign countries portray China. The staging of a major political change can have, according to current popular belief that news coverage frame could be influenced by the political sphere, an important role in stakeholder’s national image formation. Historically, changes in the political environment are often accompanied by changes in stakeholder relations. Certain social changes will inevitably have an impact on the media’s news frame, and thus a news frame that is beneficial to the politically dominant side will be chosen by the media. Therefore, it is crucial for government leaders and the public to understand how the media frame the national image of stakeholders and how the specific social environment has affected the media reporting frame.
In Malaysia, a major political shift occurred in 2018, when BN (Barisan Nasional) was forced to abandon one of the world's longest-ruling elected administrations (Abdullah, 2019). The Pakatan Harapan (Alliance of Hope, PH) coalition, led by former Prime Minister and BN Chairman Dr Mahathir Mohamad, was able to topple the BN administration of Najib Tun Razak. Former Prime Minister, Najib, had attempted to dazzle voters with his strong ties to China, while Minister Mahathir Mohamad utilized this relationship with China as a means to externalise voters' concerns about internal economic debt, shifting blame to China (Ostwald et al., 2018). Malaysia has historically had strong relations with China, which became stronger than ever during Najib's reign. Since becoming the leader of PH, Dr Mahathir's rhetoric has mirrored the "debt-trap" argument when addressing major Chinese investment projects. It is impossible to say if China's image has suffered as a result of the 2018 Malaysian general election, or whether bilateral ties have been harmed.
Despite the fact that China's rapidly-growing economy and rising political power have garnered increasing media attention, few have attempted to study how China is positioned as a stakeholder nation in the context of particular political developments. Given its context, the Malaysian election of 2018 is a phenomenon that ought to be researched in order to provide a well-informed solution to a complicated situation; that is, how do public relations affected by special political events affect the image of the country framed by the Malaysian media?
Therefore, to examine Malaysian media’s narrative of China over this political change period, the author provides a longitudinal analysis of news coverage of China by The Star, between March 29th to August 21st in 2018. The focus will be on significant themes, including public relations and political influencing factors. To further guide the analyses, the researcher will draw on framing theory as a theoretical perspective to analyse the connection between media texts and socio-political context. This study will aid in the formulation of an understanding of the Malaysian case and provide a valuable explanatory framework.
This research project will first provide a review of some existing literature of framing application in public relations and mass communication, China’s image on media, and analysis of the political landscape of 2018 Malaysia election. It will then describe the content analysis method used in this research. Finally, it will analyse and evaluate the findings of this research before drawing any important conclusions and limitations.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Framing application in public relation and mass communication
Framing plays a vital role in public relations, which has been used to measure attitudes and behavioral intentions. There is a triple nature of framing application in public relations research: frames in organizations, frames in media, and frames in public. The field has an abundance of framing studies, but few of them have examined the various factors necessary to construct and negotiate meaning; based on this research reality, some public relations scholars began to recognize time as an important variable in framing. Subsequently, more studies now investigate the impact of competing messages over the course of time and explore the impact of these frames on the public. As Chong (Chong & Druckman, 2007) points out, “little is known about the dynamics of framing in competitive contexts.”
Claes de Vreese is one of the prominent communication scholars in framing theory: he introduced a model on framing known as “Integrated process model in framing”, and posits that “the potential of the framing concept lies in the focus on communicative processes” (De Vreese, 2005). Communication is a dynamic process that involves the emergence of frames, the interaction of media frames, and audience predispositions. These components are integral to a process of framing that consists of distinct stages: frame-building, frame-setting, and individual and societal level consequences of framing (De Vreese & Semetko, 2002).
Frame-building refers to the factors that influence the structural qualities of news frames, which was defined by Hänggli (Hänggli & Kriesi, 2012) as the process in which the frames of political actors are passed to journalists and, thereafter, to media content. It focuses on the construction and social negotiation of frames in at least three areas: journalistic conventions, political actors, and cultural settings. As part of a "frame contest," the media frames may assist in establishing the parameters of debate among citizens. One interpretive package may gain clout in such a competition if it connects with popular culture or a sequence of events, fits media routines or habits, and is heavily backed by elites (Brossard & Nisbet, 2007).
2.2. The political landscape of 2018 Malaysia election
Malaysia’s ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition entered the 2018 general election fully confident of extending its grip on power, as coalitions led by the hegemonic United Malays National Organization (UMNO) had dominated Malaysia’s politics since the country’s independence in 1957 by winning each of the 13 previous general elections. With the dissolution of the Pakatan Rakyat (PR) opposition coalition, Pakatan Harapan (PH) was created in its place. And yet, despite a fragmented opposition, the BN was forced to concede defeat, thereby bringing an end to one of the world’s longest-ruling elected regimes (Ostwald et al., 2018).
Since the Malaysian election result of May 9th 2018, the international media have carried out a great deal of debate about what the election might have meant for Malaysia–China relations.
During this election campaign period, with the media highlighting the ‘China factor’, topics such as Chinese projects, loans, investments, and corruption scandals could not be ignored.
Given our interest in the media portrayal of China’s national image during this political changing period, it is important to introduce how China’s image was presented by media.
2.3. China’s image on media
In mass communication, news media play a vital role in constructing and shaping the image of a country (Adoni & Mane, 1984). Media portrayal of a country’s national image is pivotal in how that country is viewed and perceived on the international stage. (Ramo, 2009), a western analyst of China, pointed out that “China’s greatest strategic threat today is its national image”.
Because of China’s unique Communist model and rising status in the world, China has long been and is still the focus of international communications studies. ‘‘China is the most frequently studied nation in Asian mass communication research and media content is one of the two most common research foci in inquiry about the region’’. Because of the difference in news practice, ideology and national interest, traditional newspapers present a distorted, sometimes even demonized, picture of China to the international audience (Xiguang & Lei, 1996).
Previous Chinese national image studies have mainly concentrated on long term image presentation by specific media platforms or the comparison of China’s image reports on different media platforms, but there are almost no studies that focus on how China’s image was portrayed by media during a short term and drastic political changing period. Due to the long history of good international relations between Malaysia and China, the image of China in the Malaysian media has always been positive and objective. However, during the pre-and-post 2018 Malaysian election periods, the media's presentation of China's image is intriguing.
3. Research Methodology
The qualitative content analysis was conducted in this research, aimed at discovering patterns and trends in the online news coverage of China factors in Malaysia during 2018 political changing period. Data in the form of online news articles were collected from The Star’s online archives, covering the political changing period from Marth 29th to August 21st . During the weeks before and after the election day (May 9th), the various China-related coverages that were the most extensive and detailed reported. Using ‘China’ as the search term and ‘Malaysia’
as the category filter, a total of 177 news articles were sampled for 2018. The Star online news coverage was chosen as our data source for the following reasons. First, in order to fully understand online news coverage of China in this period of political change, the media platform should cover the widest range possible. The Star is the highest-circulation English language
newspaper in Malaysia. Second, online news media plays an increasingly important role in political communication (Vowe & Henn, 2015).
Newspaper stories served as the study's unit of analysis. Each paragraph of each news story was read many times to obtain a sense of the sentence groupings, and then meaning units were determined. Words, phrases, and sentences that reflected China elements were used as meaning units. These meaning units were then transferred to another document, where they were classified and tentatively allocated sub-categories (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). These condensed meaning codes were interpreted and grouped into categories. These compressed meaning codes were analysed and categorised. Those categories are used to classify data as belonging to a certain category and to describe the phenomena. The sub-categories, categories, and themes were reviewed, compared, and updated with a co-coder to improve the trustworthiness of the findings.
The content of these news items was analysed inductively, in order to identify recurrent themes and topics but also significant changes in coverage during the political changing periods. More specifically, for every one of the 177 articles, analysis consisted in identifying China factors being portrayed (e.g., Chinese investment mega project), the electoral issues covered and China-Malaysia relationship linked with the political change (e.g., 1MDB scandal and diplomatic activity).
4. Results and Discussion
Two significant and related themes were established over the course of this analysis of the pre- and-post election periods: bilateral relations, and mega Chinese investment projects.
Interestingly, these themes are not fixed, but change during the development of the political environment. In what follows, the researcher will analyse the dominant themes that emerged during pre-and-post election periods.
4.1. Pre-election period data analysis
The analysis yielded four themes for pre-election period; the categories, sub-categories and themes are depicted in table 1.
Table 1: Themes and related categories, sub-categories
Theme Categories & Sub-categories
Chinese investment projects are good for Malaysia
Boost economic growth Create more jobs for locals No special treatment for
China
Tax relief not just for projects from China
Malaysia accepts investments not just from China Malaysia’s sovereignty is not being sold to China Bilateral relations Bilateral countries should build closer ties
Good prospects for China-Malaysia cooperation
Cancelled trade with China would jeopardise bilateral relationship：
● tense relationship with China would have a negative impact on Malaysian economy
● Refusing to engage in trade cooperation with China would hurt both sides
Malaysia's 2018 election The "China factor" used by opposition parties
● Political manipulation to win votes
●Criticised Najib for selling the nation’s sovereignty to China over the surge of Chinese mega projects
The "China factor" used by the ruling party
● The opposition's scrutiny of Chinese projects will hurt Malaysia's interests
● The ruling party boosts the growth Chinese investment in Malaysia
● The ruling party will keep enhancing ties with China
● Ruling party used close ties with China as a winning bargaining chip
Theme 1: Chinese investment projects are good for Malaysia
‘Chinese investment projects are good for Malaysia’ was widely reported during the pre- election period of the study. The general trend of reporting was positive. Under this theme there are two main categories: mega Chinese investment projects could boost economic growth, and Chinese-funded projects may create more jobs for locals.
In the description of the first category, focus was primarily given to the fact that mega Chinese investment projects have injected vitality into Malaysia’s economy and are beneficial to the interests of Malaysians. Investment from China helps promote Malaysia’s economic growth, is beneficial to regional development, and helps improve Malaysia’s economic structure. This category is illustrated by the following statements:
Malaysia engaged China to build the East Coast Rail Link (ECRL) because it offered the best deal, including a seven-year relief from servicing the loan, said Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak. The caretaker Prime Minister said the China-based bank also offered the lowest interest rate." For seven years, there is no need to service the loan. By then, the ringgit order have is included, and the interest whenever almost negligible. -2018, April 11, Wednesday.
The description for the second category exemplifies that Chinese-funded projects can create more jobs for locals and encourage young people to return to their hometowns. This category is made clear by the following statements:
The ECRL would also directly and inoculum create 80,000 job opportunities, 70% of which are allotted to local workers, he added. Najib said the project would transform the economic landscape and livelihood of the people, 2. Noting that land prices had developed considerably in some strategic locations even before its completion- Thursday, 12 April 2018
The idea of being able to work closer to home looked to be the motivating factor behind the turnout at The Recruitment Drive of The East Coast Rail Link (ECRL) here- Saturday, 5 May 2018
Theme 2: No special treatment for China
This theme’s categories addressed the ruling party’s claim that there was no special treatment for China. There are three categories under this: 1. Tax relief not just for projects from China;
2. Malaysia accept investments not just from China; 3. Malaysia’s sovereignty is not being sold to China.
The description of the first category is: Neither special treatment for Chinese investment projects, nor tax relief for Chinese investment is provided by the ruling government. The following quotations support this category:
There is nothing unusual about giving Goods and Services Tax (GST) relief to the East Coast Rail Link (ECRL) project, Says Datuk Seri Mustapa Mohamed. "It is the Government's policy that certain projects will be given GST relief, not just projects from China," he said- Wednesday, April 18, 2018
The description of the second category mainly focused on the emphasis that Malaysia receives investment from other countries, not only China, and of a more considerable value. The category is supported by the following quotation:
Debunking the Opposition’s claim that Malaysia’s sovereignty is being sold to China, he said the amount of cumulative foreign direct investment (FDI) from China made up only 11.5% of total FDI in Malaysia in 2017. “The cumulative investment from China (including Hong Kong) in Malaysia for 2017 amounted to RM65bil, which is lower than investments from Singapore (RM116.3bil) and Japan (RM71.6bil),” he said- Thursday, April 19, 2018
The third category’s description focused predominantly on the ruling party’s denial that Malaysia’s national sovereignty had been sold to China, and rejecting that increased trade with China would endanger that sovereignty. The ruling party’s leader, Najib, condemned the allegations from the opposition party. The following quotations support this category:
Najib has repeatedly defended the administration's relationship with the Chinese government, saying that the accusations were baseless as foreign direct investment from China was lower compared with other nations-Thursday, Mar 29,2018
that Malaysia is not selling its sovereignty by attracting foreign direct investment as claimed by a “certain nonagenarian”- Friday, Mar 30,2018
Theme 3: Bilateral Relations
The theme of China-Malaysia relations can be divided into three primary categories: namely, both sides should strengthen contact, affirming the prospect of China-Malaysia cooperation, and China-Malaysia relations may suffer if trade cooperation with China is severed.
In the first category, the description is that China should establish closer ties with Malaysia, Malaysia and China have close cooperation, and China and Malaysia should follow current trends and strengthen cooperation. The category is supported by the following statements：
The Johor Sultan said a mission from China would not only serve to strengthen prevailing trade and investment links, but also provide value-added services to China nationals already working or doing business here. Sultan Ibrahim noted that Johor’s progressive and pro-business policies had attracted many companies and individuals from China. -Monday, April 2, 2018
Malaysia’s collaboration with China takes the front row among Asean countries, Only by collaborating can China and Malaysia follow the tide and face the needs of the future.
- Sunday, April 22, 2018
The description of the second category mainly highlights the importance of China to Malaysia’s economic development: The rise of China will benefit Malaysia. Malaysia is a country suitable for Chinese investment, and positive Sino-Malaysian relations are beneficial to bilateral development. The following statements support this category：
The raising China has become an advantage for Malaysia “This strength has become an advantage for Malaysia, which is turning to be a preferred destination for China. “This is great for our economy in years to come,” he said.- Thursday, May 3, 2018
JB is the best for Chinese people to visit or invest here："Therefore, I hope I would be able to promote JB to the Chinese people through my visit this time around, for them to visit or invest here, because I can see a huge development potential here in JB, " he said.- Sunday, April 1, 2018
The third category has two sub-categories: 1. Potential damage to China-Malaysia relations may well have a negative impact on Malaysia; 2. Refusing trade cooperation with China may harm the interests of both sides. The ruling party believes that refusing trade cooperation with China will harm China-Malaysia relations, that anti-China sentiment is dangerous, and the racism will hurt China-Malaysia relations. The following statements support this category：
Such a move might anger China, whose state-owned China Communications Construction Company (CCCC) had been appointed for the construction of the project."
CCCC is fully owned by the Chinese government. If the ECRL project is cancelled, what happens if they tell their tourists to boycott our country? No one will go to Tasik Kenyir," he said referring to a popular tourist spot here." Recently, there was a dispute between China and South Korea. China then told their tourists to boycott Korea. As a result, Jeju Island became deserted." China is also the biggest importer of our palm oil.
What if they decide not to buy from us anymore? Felda will suffer badly," said Najib at a rally in Kuala Berang here Friday (May 4).- Friday, May 4, 2018
Anti-China sentiments were not good for the country and Asean. China-Asean Business Association president Tan Sri Lim Gait Tong said anti-China sentiments were not good for the country and Asean. Such a stance by a group of politicians and racists can be harmful for the continuing good relations between Malaysia and China.- Thursday, May 3, 2018
Theme 4: Malaysia's 2018 Election
The fourth theme discusses the ‘China factor’ which was used by both the ruling party and the opposition party, and is the most salient theme among the four. Under the first category, there are two sub-categories. The first illustrates that rumours were spread by the opposition to win the general election, and that the opposition leaders incited anti-China sentiment. The second sub-category demonstrates that Najib had been criticised for allegedly selling the nation’s sovereignty to China due to the surge of Chinese mega projects，and that Dr Mahathir lashed out at Najib with accusations of selling the country's sovereignty to China. The following statements support this category：
By attacking China projects, Dr Mahathir is giving the impression that he is fanning anti-China feelings or he is prepared to undermine the economy and Malaysia’s image just to win votes. - Saturday, April 21, 2018
The second category was grouped into four sub-categories. The first described that if the opposition party wins the election, it will cancel mega Chinese investment projects, which will harm Malaysia's interests. There are many counter frames present. For example, the opposition party’s anti-China tendency is implied, while emphasizing that Malaysia has become an attractive destination for Chinese investment as a result of the ruling party’s efforts. Further implied is Dr Mahathir's anti-China stance in contrast to Najib’s pro-China leanings. The category is supported by the following statements：
Najib said the proposal by Pakatan Harapan to cancel projects signed with China, should the latter win GE14, will result in Malaysian contractors and consultants suffering losses.- Wednesday, April 11, 2018
MUAR: Pakatan Harapan's proposal to cancel projects signed with China if they win the polls is a "mad and insane" move, said Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak.
"The Opposition intends to cancel contracts such as the East Coast Rail Link (ECRL) and other contracts. This will result in chaos for the rakyat as they will have to shoulder the heat from this disaster," said the Prime Minister. - Wednesday, April 4, 2018
The second sub-category points out that after Najib became prime minister, the relationship between China and Malaysia had reached a new level. As a result, China's investment in Malaysia continues to grow. These sound bilateral relations have brought economic benefits to Malaysia. The following statements support this category：
Good bilateral relationships since 1974 and especially after Najib became Prime Minister. “We have had good relations with China since 1974 and especially after Najib became Prime Minister. We can also see that China places importance on its relations with Malaysia,” he said, adding that Huazong also believed the need for all communities, including the Chinese, to be well represented in the Government. - Thursday, May 3, 2018
The third sub-category describes how the ruling party will continue to reinforce ties with China after its election victory. There exists a counter frame, which is that while the ruling party will strengthen China-Malaysia relations, the opposition will sever them; the relevant news description is also based on this meaning. The following statements support this category：
A big risk factor in supporting the Opposition as they have plans to review the contracts and projects awarded to companies owned by the Chinese government, such as the East Coast Rail Line (ECRL). Najib added that any cancellation of the contracts will sour relations with the Chinese government and may result in economic retaliation by them.
-Monday, April 30, 2018
Related news in the fourth sub-category describes the ruling party's efforts to highlight political achievements and contributions by showcasing photos of Chinese President Xi Jinping and e- commerce mogul Jack Ma. The following statements support this category：
MCA is showcasing its achievements and contributions through the banners featuring Chinese president Xi Jinping and e-commerce stalwart Jack Ma, says Datuk Seri Liow Tiong Lai. -Monday, 30 Apr 2018
4.2. Post-election period data analysis
The analysis yielded four themes for post-election period. The categories, sub-categories and themes are depicted in table 2.
Table 2: Themes and related categories, sub-categories
Theme Categories & Sub-categories
Bilateral relations Mutual interpretation of goodwill
● China supports the new government
● The new government supports China
Bilateral differences still exist
● De-sinification
● Chinese investors worry about bilateral relations
Reach a consensus
● Prime Minister Mahathir visited China
● Bilateral will strengthen cooperation
The new government reviews mega Chinese investment projects
Necessity of review
● Harm to Malaysia
● Measures taken by the new government
The attitude of the Chinese government A goodwill signal from the
new government
Malaysia welcomes investment from China
The new government did not cancel the digital free trade zone 1MDB Scandal Businessman Low Taek Jho
Collusion between the ‘China factor’ and the previous government
Najib’s lie
Theme 1: Bilateral Relations
The articles that describe bilateral relations appeared in newspapers recurrently during the post- election period. The collected data under this theme was grouped into three categories: Mutual interpretation of goodwill; Bilateral differences still exist; Reach a consensus.
The Chinese government expressed its congratulations to Dr Mahathir for being re-elected as Prime Minister of Malaysia while affirming Dr Mahathir’s contribution to bilateral relations, and stated it would continue to cooperate with Malaysia. Meanwhile, the new Malaysian government also expressed its support for the Chinese government, including support for the Chinese "Belt and Road" initiative, while affirming that embracing China is beneficial. Due to China's current development status, Malaysia is willing to benefit from it rather than seek confrontation. The following statements support this category：
China has expressed confidence that Malaysia will prosper under the new administration led by Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad. -Tuesday, 31 Jul 2018
In a statement on Thursday (May 24), he said Dr Mahathir had previously laid a solid foundation for China-Malaysia relations, including initiating the China- Asean cooperation. -Thursday, 24 May 2018
The second category grouped into two sub-categories: de-Sinification, and Chinese investors worry about bilateral relations. After the new government assumed office, Dr Mahathir announced that a series of mega Chinese investment projects would be reviewed, projects that are a vital part of China's "One Belt One Road" initiative. Dr Mahathir's move will undoubtedly introduce a series of uncertainties to bilateral relations. Prime Minister Mahathir's visit to Japan is considered as a signal that the new government intends to divest from its dependence on Chinese capital. The following statements support this category：
But a source tells Sunday Star that Beijing will be prepared to renegotiate the terms of the ECRL, a government-to-government project. -Sunday, 03 Jun 2018
THE Chinese government, which was looking forward to the construction of the East Coast Rail Link (ECRL) involving Malaysia and China, hopes a win-win solution can be found through sincere and friendly consultations, says the Chinese Embassy in Malaysia. -Sunday, 08 Jul 2018
The news article from the third category demonstrates that a consensus was reached on how to negotiate together and strengthen cooperation. The relevant description mainly revolves around Prime Minister Mahathir’s visit to China, the main purpose of this visit being to negotiate over the unfairness of contracts. Mahathir was going to renegotiate contract terms with China, strengthen bilateral relations, and use his political wisdom to eliminate anti-China bias.
Mahathir’s visit to China has led to new cooperation in the bilateral economic field, including seeking cooperation with Chinese companies, hoping that Malaysian businessmen will enter the Chinese market and promote cooperation between Proton and Chinese companies. The following statements support this category：
“There are several issues to be brought up (with China), among which, is the unfairness of the terms of the contract and also the loan. It was reported that the Government would be sending a delegation to China later this month to renegotiate the contract costs for both the East Coast Rail Link and the two Suria Strategic Energy Resources Sdn Bhd projects. -Saturday, 07 Jul 2018
At least five memoranda of understanding (MoUs) will be signed during Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad's five day visit in China. "This visit is significant to further strengthening the cooperation and relationship of the (new) government and China.-- Friday, 17 Aug 2018
Former prime minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak said he is happy that carmaker Proton Holdings Bhd’s decision to sell a 49.9% stake to China’s Zhejiang Geely Group is now getting support from Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad and Pakatan Harapan. - Tuesday, 21 Aug 2018
Theme 2: The new government reviews mega Chinese investment projects
The theme of bilateral relations has shown itself to be the most salient during the post-election period, and 64% of the news reports corroborated this. The second most important theme is
“the new government reviews mega Chinese investment projects", which was described in 21%
of the news articles. The categories under this theme can be divided into necessity of review, and the attitude of the Chinese government. The news articles descriptions of the first category show that if these Chinese-funded projects continue to be carried out, they will bring harm to Malaysia as the operating costs are too high and may lead to significant domestic debt. The
new government has adopted review measures for Chinese-funded projects. The projects involved are the Singapore High Speed Rail Project (HSR), the East Coast Natural Gas Pipeline Project, the Forest City in Johor, and the Langkawi New Town. The following quotations support these categories:
Malaysia’s Prime Minister said Monday he will seek to cancel multibillion-dollar Chinese-backed infrastructure projects that were signed by his predecessor as his government works to dig itself out of debt. -Monday, 13 Aug 2018
Lim said a review was needed so that the government would not be saddled with a huge debt. “It is a mega project that will result in a mega debt,” he added. -Thursday, 16 Aug 2018
The news articles descriptions of the second category discuss the Chinese government’s attitude based on those review measures – ranging from anger to understanding. It is noteworthy that China's attitude shift occurred following Prime Minister Mahathir's visit to China. The following quotations support these categories:
Beijing has expressed its anger over the Malaysian actions via a report in the Global Times, an official mouthpiece of the Communist Party of China. -Monday, 04 Jun 2018
The East Coast Rail Link and the projects for the construction of two gas pipelines have been cancelled, says Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad. "China understands our problem and agreed," he said. -Tuesday, 21 Aug 2018
Theme 3: A goodwill signal from the new government
This theme’s categories address how Malaysia welcomes Chinese investment and the digital free trade zone has not been cancelled by the new government: Malaysia welcomes foreign direct investment from all countries, including China. Malaysia is not rejecting Chinese investment but suspicious loans from China, as the following quotation describes:
“On May 9 (election day), Malaysians resoundingly rejected irresponsible FDIs and dubious loans that could burden and ruin economies and their greedy Malaysian enablers, but popular opposition to such projects does not constitute a blanket opposition to all investments from China,” he added. -Thursday, 24 May 2018
The new prime minister met with Chinese E-commerce giant CEO Jack Ma, who expressed confidence in China-Malaysia relations, as described in the following quotations:
ALIBABA Group executive chairman Jack Ma (pic) will be in Malaysia to meet Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad soon, reported Nanyang Siang Pau. -Friday, 25 May 2018
Former prime minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak is grateful that the Pakatan Harapan Government did not cancel the Digital Free Trade Zone (DFTZ). -Monday, 18 Jun 2018
Theme 4: 1MDB Scandal
The final theme is the 1MDB Scandal. The general trend of reporting related to China was negative. This theme’s categories addressed the businessman Low Taek Jho, collusion between the ‘China factor’ and the previous government, and Najib’s dishonesty. As to the first
category, related news focused on the new Malaysian government's suspicion that Low was in hiding in China, and hinted that China would indeed provide a hiding place for him. The businessman claimed to be protected by former Prime Minister Najib. This category is illustrated by the following statements:
The WSJ had earlier published an article saying Malaysian officials believed China had been harbouring Low between June and July this year. -Friday, 17 Aug 2018
Low Taek Jho (pic), the central figure wanted in investigations over 1Malaysia Development Bhd (1MDB), has expressed interest in cooperating with the authorities in return for witness protection. -Thursday, 14 Jun 2018
News descriptions related to the second category showed that there was collusion between the Chinese government and the former Malaysian government, while Chinese companies were suspected of providing the former government an injection of funds to cover up the corruption scandal. Two Chinese investment projects were involved, and the ECRL project was believed to be part of the 1MDB scandal. This category is illustrated by the following statements:
However, Hiebert said it was “widely assumed” that Malaysia was striking quick deals with China in the hope of getting help to cover debts from sovereign wealth fund 1MDB. -Sunday, 17 Jun 2018
1MDB scandal may have links to Chinese companies. The Pakatan Harapan government is stunned by the widening scope of its findings on 1Malaysia Development Bhd (1MDB), including possible links to Chinese firms. -Wednesday, 18 Jul 2018
News reports related to the third category indicate that the new government has not located the supporting documentation showing that China had promised to import goods worth $2 trillion from the previous government; the business contract with China has been accused of lacking transparency. Prime Minister Mahathir believes that the previous government was corrupt and dishonest. This category is illustrated by the following statements:
The Finance Ministry has found no documents to support claims that China had committed to import goods worth US$2 trillion (RM7.96 trillion) as part of two pipeline agreements worth RM9.4bil. -Tuesday, 12 Jun 2018
Contracts involving China-linked projects, approved by the previous government, are now under intense scrutiny. Many clauses are found to contain China-tilted terms, with some smacked of corruption. -Sunday, 08 Jul 2018
Regarding the analysis of China-related online news coverage in The Star, two general findings stand out. In the pre-election period, China-related news portrayed China as a boon to Malaysia's economic development, and China’s image was positive. For the post-election period, China was portrayed as a financial dept-trap and an accomplice in the 1MDB scandal;
China’s image became negative. However, during this phase, the news not only focused on the negative aspects related to China, but more significantly, a great amount of coverage has been devoted to the fact that there is a bright future for bilateral relations. Indeed, was the media frame related to China during this election period indicating the sudden change of bilateral
relations, or showing that the bilateral relations need to be reframed due to those specific project contracts?
5. Conclusion
In framing theory, frame building is media input, which is an important factor that affects the media reporting frame. Media input process is influenced by the social reality which is created under specific public relations. In this analysis, the ‘China factor’ was used to frame online news during this political changing period, which can be seen as a public relations translation exercise - linking former high-level political activity to state debt and corruption, and domestic economic panic to mega Chinese investment projects (an external target).
During the pre-election period, by emphasizing the close relationship with China, Najib was attempting to highlight the economic contribution to domestic benefit via Chinese investment projects; post-election, Pakatan Harapan was able to frame Najib as the key figure who passed national benefits to China. Although a large portion of the China-related news was negative during the post-election period, the ‘Malaysia-China relationship’ has been a prominent theme in the pre-election and post-election periods, and the general discourse about this topic is positive; this suggests that, no matter which party is in power, positive bilateral relations are necessary.
6. Limitation and Recommendation
The first limitation of this study is that The Star cannot represent the entire Malaysian news media industry. Other Malaysian media, as well as data from many election cycles, will need to be examined to reinforce the external validity of the findings. Secondly, additional components of media representation will need to be studied using various approaches such as framing or discourse analysis for a more thorough account. The third and final limitation is that the researcher has had to read a large volume of articles multiple times to understand the core of what was written, which is important to note as it is difficult to maintain the integrity of the narrative material throughout analysis when the sample size is significant.
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