International Journal of Social Science Research (IJSSR) eISSN: 2710-6276 | Vol. 4 No. 4 [December 2022]
Journal website: http://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/ijssr
GENDER MAINSTREAMING INTO MALAYSIAN TVET
Magdalene Ang Chooi Hwa1* and Lim Tien Hong2
1 2 National Higher Education Research Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, MALAYSIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Article Information:
Article history:
Received date : 27 September 2022 Revised date : 8 November 2022 Accepted date : 28 November 2022 Published date : 7 December 2022
To cite this document:
Ang, M. C. H., & Lim, T. H. (2022).
GENDER MAINSTREAMING INTO MALAYSIAN TVET.
International Journal of Social Science Research, 4(4), 30-38.
Abstract: The Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG5) aims at ensuring women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for employment, leadership and decision-making. Malaysia has achieved several milestones in empowering girls and women through a number of mainstream educational reforms and initiatives. Nonetheless, more could be done to advance the gender mainstreaming agenda, particularly in Malaysian Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) system. TVET is widely acknowledged as a game changer for nations’ economic growth and specifically for the development of marginalised groups such as women and people with disabilities. Integration of gender perspectives in TVET is crucial so that both women and men can reap the benefits of TVET. An empirical study was conducted to gauge the implementation and perceptions of gender mainstreaming in Malaysian TVET system and delivery.
Data were obtained via in-depth interviews with 11 TVET instructors from public and private TVET institutions [including non-governmental organizations (NGOs)] in Malaysia. The data revealed minimal understanding of the concept of gender mainstreaming among the participants. Consequently, most of the existing TVET policies and practices do not incorporate gender perspectives. Yet, the participants hold favourable views of gender mainstreaming. Implications of the findings are also discussed.
Keywords: Gender mainstreaming, SDG5, TVET, Malaysia.
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1. Introduction
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development essentially envisions a future which is desirable, fair and equitable for all nations, people and all segments of society. SDG5 particularly aims at achieving gender equality and empowering women and girls by 2030.
Arguably, education is the key to women empowerment because it equips women with more knowledge and skills, thus qualifying them for better jobs and positions of leadership and decision making.
Malaysia has demonstrated long-standing commitment to ensuring that girls and women have access to education at all levels and to employment (World Bank, 2021). Since gaining Independence, the nation has put in place the imperative of empowering women and gender equity interventions. The nation’s educational reforms and gender equality policies and practices mainly focus on the mainstream academic education system. Examples of recent interventions include the Malaysia Women Policy (2009) and the National Policy on Science, Technology and Innovation (2013-2020) aimed at increasing girls’ participation in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Education. The results are some noteworthy milestones namely the increased enrolment of girls in secondary school from only 33% in 1957 to 75% in 2018 (UNESCO, 2018) and the bridging of literacy rates between girls (93.2%) and boys (96.2%) (The World Fact Book-CIA, 2022). At present, women also constitute 62% of the total enrolment in Malaysian higher education institutions (ibid). With a GPI of 0.8, there are more girls than boys in all fields of study except engineering, manufacturing and construction (World Bank, 2021).
While World Bank (2021) acknowledges that Malaysia has made significant progress in reversing gender gaps, its report (2021, p. 9) also indicates that “Malaysia’s female enrolment rates at the secondary and tertiary levels are still below regional and aspirational countries.”
Clearly, there are girls/women who have somehow fallen through the gaps in the system. For those who have benefitted from the system, their visibility in business labor markets and as key decision makers remains off the mark. Omukhulu et al. (2016) opine that despite governments’
initiatives, gender mainstreaming is still a challenge at both national and community levels.
In light of the aforementioned, this paper argues that intensified educational reforms are much needed to further enhance Malaysian women’s representation in the economic sector as highly skilled and sought after employees and key decision makers. One feasible strategy is to cast the gender mainstreaming net far and wide to include the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector. TVET can promote inclusive growth and sustainability so that inequalities along gender lines can be better bridged. An empirical study was accordingly conducted with three broad aims in mind: to (1) explore TVET instructors’ understanding of the concept of gender mainstreaming and/or gender-sensitive policies and practices; (2) gauge the extent of gender considerations in the implementation process of the TVET system; and (3) investigate TVET instructors’ uptake of the gender mainstreaming agenda for TVET.
The following section briefly discusses the Malaysian TVET. Next, the concept of gender mainstreaming and why it is relevant and important in the Malaysian TVET agenda is presented. The two subsequent sections report the methodology and findings, respectively. The paper closes with a discussion on the implications of the findings in respect to advancing gender mainstreaming in Malaysian TVET. It also offers some recommendations for future research.
2. Malaysian TVET in Brief
Malaysian TVET system is conceptualized as encompassing post-primary, secondary and tertiary educational levels. The Ministry of Education oversees the delivery of TVET programs at junior secondary level. The TVET post-secondary level is somewhat fragmented as it is under the purview of 7 government ministries (i.e., Ministry of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource, Ministry of Regional and Rural Development, Ministry of Works, Ministry of Youth and Sports, Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry and Ministry of Defence) and their agencies, 4 public universities (i.e., Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka and Universiti Malaysia Pahang), 12 state skills development institutions and privately owned TVET institutions (e.g., Universiti Kuala Lumpur and German-Malaysian Institute) (Mohd Amin, 2016). This study’s focus is on Malaysian TVET system and delivery at the post-secondary level. As of December 2018, Malaysia has 1595 TVET institutions - 640 public, 633 private and 22 state colleges as reported in the Twelfth Malaysian Plan (2021-2025) (12MP) (Economic Planning Unit, 2022a).
In recent years, TVET has gained increasing global and national recognition as an effective nation development strategy by producing a constant flow of skilled, knowledgeable and marketable human resources (Ang & Lim, 2022; Masud et al., 2018; Yeap et al., 2021).
UNESCO and ILO have singled TVET out as the tool to provide the skills needed for the informal and formal employment of marginalized groups such as women and persons with disabilities (PWDs) (Ang & Lim, 2022). Similarly, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) delineates TVET as an explicit outcome, with SDG’s Goal 5 emphasizing the importance of ensuring equal access to education (including TVET) for women and girls.
On the Malaysian front, the government similarly acknowledges in 12MP (2021-2025) the benefits of TVET that include helping the country to become high-economy by 2025 (Economic Planning Unit, 2022a). Indeed, the 12MP consists of policy enablers to ensure that marginalised groups that include women and PWDs have more access to education and economic opportunities. However, a desk review revealed that the development roadmap as well as the national TVET agenda does not specifically entail the inclusion of gender mainstreaming. The government’s TVET reforms have plausibly overlooked the mainstreaming of gender perspectives into TVET.
3. Gender Mainstreaming: The What and the How
Gender mainstreaming is essentially an approach to policy making that considers both women’s and men’s interests and concerns. It is sometimes known as a gender-responsive/- sensitive approach. It is also viewed as a tool to promote gender equality by integrating a gender equality perspective at all stages and levels of policies, programs and projects. The concept first came about at the 1985 Nairobi World Conference on Women and eventually gained global recognition at the 1995 Fourth United Nations World Conference on Women in Beijing.
Gender mainstreaming is relatively new in Malaysia in terms of its implementation. However, the processes of gender mainstreaming had already taken roots from the time the country gained its independence. For instance, the Sixth Malaysian Plan (1991-1995) (6MP) contains evidence of detailed gender mainstreaming initiatives by the government (Economic Planning Unit, 2022b). Also, in the STEM Education, the government aspires to have more women in
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sector is unknown. Thus, this paper contends that Malaysian TVET system should integrate gender perspectives if TVET is to be embraced as a sustainable platform to empower women in terms of improving their labor market outcomes and life prospects.
Why is gender mainstreaming into TVET important? First, the adoption of this approach heeds the UNESCO’s (2020) call on education community to factor gender in COVID-19 education responses in relation to policies and programs so as to tackle increased risk of marginalization of vulnerable groups like women and girls. By applying the gender lens, we are better able to understand the ways in which gendered power relations permeate TVET structures and institutions in the post COVID-19 times. Gender-sensitivity approach can also be a sound governance for TVET (Munyi & Cheruiyot, 2019).
Second, the extant literature reveals that women have limited access to TVET educational programs due to numerous reasons that include inadequate basic education qualifications, enrolment costs, insufficient understanding of the benefits of TVET, etc. [Council of Europe (COE), 2022]. Moreover, girls continue to lag far behind in participation and performance (Omukhulu, 2016). Hence, a TVET agenda that incorporates gender perspectives can effectively address gender disparities in respect to access to TVET.
Third, gender mainstreaming helps dispel the notion that women and men are a homogenous group. This notion is far from the truth as women and men have different needs and abilities.
The erroneous assumption may also result in hidden gender inequalities. When compared to young men, young women are relatively more disadvantaged because their role as potential contributors to sustainable and productive livelihoods is largely undermined by their families and society at large (COE, 2022).
Finally, even if women have the opportunity to access TVET, they are likely to be funnelled into courses which society perceives to be more suitable for them. However, these courses may not offer them good job prospects. Mustapha et al. (2013) found that most fields in Malaysian TVET are segregated along gender lines; e.g., fashion design, health and household economics are popular with women while car mechanics, carpentry and agriculture courses are predominantly taken up by men. Other studies (e.g., Masud et al., 2018) also confirm the existence of gender imbalance in technical and vocational fields in Malaysia whereby only a minority of women opt for technical fields. The main reason is the perception that technical field requires high physical and mental endurance and durability (Mustapha et al., 2013). Other reasons include women lack knowledge of self and career, self-confidence, encouragement from family, friends and teachers to pursue TVET courses and limited opportunities to prove themselves as equally capable as if not more than their male counterparts (ibid). Mustapha et al. (2013) also apprised that any imbalance in the courses pursued by women will further widen the disparity in the types of job held by women. Moreover, Masud et al.’s (2018) study revealed that economic and social gains from TVET education have benefitted men more than their female counterparts.
In a nutshell, the role of gender mainstreaming is so crucial in addressing the inequalities because it considers gender differences when designing, implementing and evaluating TVET policies, programs and projects, thus enabling both women and men to benefit from TVET programs.
4. Method
This study adopted a qualitative research design to obtain richer data on the areas of inquiry.
Participants were selected using a targeted random sampling method based on 2 criteria: they must be full-time TVET instructors with job tenure of 2 years and above. This approach resulted in a sample size of 11 TVET instructors from institutions located in Penang, Perak and Selangor. The participants were interviewed face-to-face with the help of an interview guide.
The interview guide consists of open-ended questions related to gender mainstreaming in TVET. The questions were formulated to (1) gauge the participants’ understanding of gender mainstreaming; (2) investigate the prevalence of gender perspectives in existing TVET policies and practices; and (3) explore perceptions of gender mainstreaming for TVET. The participants were assured of confidentiality and with their consent, the interviews were recorded. On average, each interview session took 40 minutes to complete.
Demographic data such as age, sex, ethnicity, educational level and job tenure were also obtained (see Table 1). The age range of the participants is 28 to 60 years. The majority of the participants are Malay males (63.64% or 7). All the participants, except 1, possess Bachelor’s degrees. Five participants are from the public TVET institutions (i.e., community colleges), 3 from private TVET colleges and another 3 from NGOs. Their job tenure as TVET instructors is 3 years and more.
Table 1: Participants’ Profile Participant Age Sex Ethnicity Educational
Level
Job Tenure (years)
Institution Type
P1 60 Male Malay Bachelor’s degree 20 Public
P2 41 Male Malay Bachelor’s degree 11 Public
P3 44 Female Malay Bachelor’s degree 7 Public
P4 40 Male Malay Bachelor’s degree 6 Public
P5 51 Female Malay Bachelor’s degree 12 Public
P6 54 Male Chinese Bachelor’s degree 17 Private
P7 38 Male Chinese Bachelor’s degree 5 Private
P8 53 Male Chinese Bachelor’s degree 3 Private
P9 38 Male Chinese Bachelor’s degree 12 NGO
P10 28 Female Malay Diploma 5 NGO
P11 46 Female Malay Bachelor’s degree 4 NGO
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5. Analysis and Findings
The interview recordings were transcribed verbatim and data were extracted manually from the transcripts. These were then organized into significant themes and patterns pertinent to the study. The following section presents the salient findings of this study. The phrases and sentences in italics were spoken by the participants, and are used because they enable better understanding than would the researcher’s paraphrasing.
5.1 Understanding of Gender Mainstreaming into TVET
To the question “What is gender mainstreaming” and/or gender-responsive approach to TVET?”, the majority of the participants replied that they have no or little knowledge of the concept. However, they generally demonstrated some understanding of what gender equality is. Some of the elicited responses are as follows:
“Is the concept the same as gender equality? Hmmm…but I’m not too sure how to put it in words.” P3, female, public TVET
“Sorry…can’t answer this question as I do not know what gender mainstreaming is.” P7, male, private TVET
“Gender-responsive approach for TVET? Honestly, I’ve not seen this term before. Has it got something to do with the differences between men and women?” P9, male, NGO
5.2 Extent of Gender Policy Implementation
The interview data revealed that there are generally no formalized gender policies and practices in the TVET institutions surveyed. Similarly, previous studies (e.g., Masud et al., 2018; Munyi
& Cheruiyot, 2019; Omukhulu et al., 2016) reported the lack of clear gender policy guidelines in TVET.
However, one participant shared some institutional initiatives (albeit informal) that do reflect elements of gender-sensitivity:
“Our institution maintains a WhatsApp group and sometimes holds meetings to find out what our male and female students need.” Participant 10, female, NGO
It should be noted that 2 participants did not see the need to integrate gender perspectives in TVET course offerings. The following are some of the reasons provided:
“Gender may no longer be an issue...we get more female students for our electrical and electronic engineering programs now…before, we used to have more boys than girls. Things are changing now.” P6, male, private TVET
“There are many different TVET courses. Whether male or female, students can choose any courses they want. So, I’d say it has more to do with
individuals’ personal choices/interests than…gender-related.” P7, male, private TVET
5.3 Perceptions of Gender Mainstreaming into TVET
Although the participants have not totally caught on to what TVET gender mainstreaming policy/agenda is about, their overall response to the concept and its aim is generally positive.
This finding is consistent with past studies (e.g., Munyi & Cheruiyot, 2019; Omukhulu et al., 2016). The participants remarked:
“This gender mainstreaming sounds like a good idea for TVET…should promote (it) to relevant stakeholders so that the right policies and practices can be carried out nationwide.” P1, male, public TVET
“Well, if gender mainstreaming initiatives can help both male and female students, I don’t see why it should not be implemented in TVET.” P11, female, NGO
6. Implications
This section proposes several recommendations to address the grave deficiency in gender mainstreaming into the Malaysian TVET system and delivery. The findings revealed that the majority of the participants have minimal understanding of the concept—gender mainstreaming. Nonetheless, they hold favourable views of gender-responsive initiatives for TVET. Given these findings, the government should first and foremost consider enhancing public awareness and knowledge of the concept, and then highlighting the why and how it should be incorporated into TVET.
Apart from launching public campaigns or organizing roadshows to promote gender mainstreaming into TVET, it would be helpful to adopt a holistic and integrated approach by utilizing existing mechanisms at the district, state and federal levels. These mechanisms advocate gender mainstreaming in Malaysia and they include the Cabinet Committee on Gender Equality; National Advisory Council for Women (NACW); the National Council on Women and Family Development (NCWFD); the Department of Women Development (DWD); the Gender Focal Points (GFP); and Young Women Bureau and Young Family Bureau. They can also serve as advisors for the establishment of Gender Units/Centres in TVET institutions of which the main aim is to champion the gender mainstreaming agenda in TVET.
Another plausible intervention should be geared towards the enactment and implementation of gender policies and strategies for TVET akin to the ones already in place for secondary schools and universities. This may ensure more equal participation of women and men in TVET.
Another role of these policies is to apprise gender considerations when it comes to revamping and developing curricula and learning materials for TVET students so that the gender imbalance in certain courses can be minimized.
The government should also consider developing regional and national frameworks and guidelines/regulations to promote gender perspectives in the TVET system. Gender-sensitive policy enablers need to be put in place to further drive the agenda of gender mainstreaming into Malaysian TVET. One crucial initiative is to promote the compilation of sex disaggregated data in all aspects of TVET; e.g., enrolment data in courses/departments, number of graduates and even budget. With the availability of such data, the future direction of TVET particularly in the post-COVID world can be better charted and that both men and women can be
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In addition, women can become role models in their capacity as TVET providers/instructors in male-dominated disciplines to challenge societal gender stereotypes in respect of TVET as a more viable educational pathway for men than for women or what TVET courses are more suited for men than for women. Towards this end, there should be a deliberate and continuous effort to attract young girls to take up courses that lend to qualifications which are sought after by the industry and that can eventually promote the acceptance of women in higher-earning and decision-making positions.
7. Limitations and Future Research
This study has excluded TVET instructors from polytechnics and universities due to financial constraints. To improve the generalizability of the findings, future studies should aim for a larger sample by covering all TVET institution types in Malaysia. Moreover, the current study only offered the perspectives of TVET instructors. Further research on gender mainstreaming into TVET might consider collecting data from students of TVET and their parents to get a broader and perhaps richer insights and understanding of gender mainstreaming. Also, incorporating a mixed-mode data collection design in future studies can potentially improve data quality.
8. Conclusion
The Agenda Goals and Targets envision a future that is desirable and equitable for all nations, people and segments of society. The Malaysian governments’ unfortunate oversight of the importance of gender perspectives in TVET should thus be addressed immediately in light of the increasingly prominent role of TVET in producing skilful human capital for Malaysia’s development. Importantly, gender mainstreaming initiatives and policies should be put in place in cognizant of the fact that women, men, girls and boys have the right to participate in and benefit from the development and initiatives of TVET. This agenda can ultimately be a sound governance and tool to realize the aim of SDG5
9. Acknowledgement
The research work done in this paper is part of a larger research project funded by IPPTN, USM (USM/IPPTN/Kajian/124).
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