Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 50 (2022) 67–82
1447-6770/© 2021 The Authors.
What is holding customers back? Assessing the moderating roles of personal and social norms on CSR ’ S routes to Airbnb repurchase intention in the COVID-19 era
Stephanie Hui-Wen Chuah
a,b,*, Raditia Yudistira Sujanto
c,d, Jovi Sulistiawan
e, Eugene Cheng-Xi Aw
faSchool of Hospitality, Tourism & Events, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
bCentre for Research and Innovation in Tourism, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
cDepartment of Business Administration, Asia University, Taiwan
dDepartment of Communication Science, Universitas ‘Aisyiyah Yogyakarta, Indonesia
eDepartment of Management, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
fUCSI Graduate Business School, USCI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords:
Corporate social responsibility Customer trust
Customer identification Norms
Repurchase intention COVID-19
A B S T R A C T
Despite Airbnb’s disruption of the hotel industry, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought peer-to-peer (P2P) ac- commodation markets to a standstill. During the pandemic, Airbnb elevated their engagement in corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the quest to regain trust and develop an attractive brand identity. However, the effec- tiveness of CSR in engendering favorable behavioral outcomes in times of crisis remains inconclusive. Drawing upon the theoretical lens of the stakeholder theory, the norm activation model, and the theory of planned behavior, this study proposes a conceptual model to test the influence of Airbnb’s CSR on repurchase/rebook intention through the mediation of customer trust and customer identification with the company (C-C identifi- cation). This study also examines the moderating effects of personal and social norms on the CSR–repurchase intention routes. Findings yielded by a survey of 528 Airbnb users in the US show that the strategic philanthropy component carries the most weight in determining customers’ assessments of CSR. This is followed by the environmental, economic, and ethical components. Perceived CSR does not affect repurchase intention directly but does so indirectly through the mediation of C-C identification. Personal norms weaken the effects of perceived CSR and customer trust on repurchase intention. Theoretical and practical implications are provided.
1. Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic, akin to a black swan event, has not only heaped misery on people around the world but has also ravaged the global travel and hospitality industry, especially the peer-to-peer (P2P) accommodation sector (Roggeveen & Sethuraman, 2020; Zhang, Geng, et al., 2021, Zhang, Xie, et al., 2021). Local experience and interpersonal connection, which used to be sources of competitive advantage for Airbnb, lost their appeal during the pandemic. According to AirDNA, an online rental analytics firm, Airbnb bookings in Beijing declined by 96%
from January to March 2020 as the virus spread throughout China, while bookings in New York City, San Francisco, and Seattle saw a drop of more than 50% (Hamilton, 2020). In areas like the Jersey Shore and
Newport Beach, California, and in states like Pennsylvania and Vermont, officials prohibited short-term rentals as part of COVID-19 counter- measures (Lasky, 2020). Due to the sheer number of cancellations and sluggish demand, Airbnb suffered a staggering revenue drop of $1.2 billion for the first nine months of 2020 (Griffith, 2020), leading Airbnb CEO Brian Chesky to profess that “travel as we knew it is over” (Ekstein
& Bloomberg, 2020). In addition, new demands for social distancing and
personal hygiene placed Airbnb at a disadvantage compared to tradi- tional hotels with better contactless solutions (e.g., self-check-in kiosks) as well as stricter safety and cleaning protocols (e.g., sanitization of rooms with UV light robots) (Gerwe, 2021).
Consequently, Airbnb, which has historically been the pioneer of change management in the hospitality industry, decided to undertake
* Corresponding author. School of Hospitality, Tourism & Events, Taylor’s University, Subang Jaya, Malaysia.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Hui-Wen Chuah), [email protected] (R.Y. Sujanto), [email protected] (J. Sulistiawan), [email protected] (E. Cheng-Xi Aw).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.12.007
Received 16 June 2021; Received in revised form 19 November 2021; Accepted 28 December 2021
concrete actions to evolve and grow (Mauguin, 2020). In response to the COVID-19 crisis, Airbnb has not only made rapid changes to its customer offerings, website, and booking policy, but has also proactively engaged in corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities such as establishing the “Superhost Relief Fund” and offering free or subsidized housing for healthcare professionals, relief workers, and first responders. CSR is a voluntary corporate commitment to maximize long-term economic, so- cietal, and environmental well-being through business practices, pol- icies, and resources (Du et al., 2011). While some consumers may be skeptical about corporate social involvement (Skarmeas & Leonidou, 2013), a firm’s altruistic motivations and genuine commitment to CSR can be verified through global crises like the COVID-19 pandemic (Shin et al., 2021). This is because businesses may be tempted to reduce long-term CSR investments and pursue short-term gains (even through fraud and misconduct) in the face of financial strains inflicted by the crisis (He & Harris, 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic will likely propel post-pandemic CSR development in the long-term, as the public expect hospitality firms to be socially responsible for crisis recovery; in fact, an increasing number of hospitality firms have started to realize the importance of balancing profit and social welfare for their long-term survival (He & Harris, 2020). CSR engagement by hospitality firms amid the crisis is thus regarded as strategic philanthropy (Shin et al., 2021). Strategic philan- thropy reflects the strategic advantages of community-directed CSR, including charitable donations based on distinctive resources of the in- dustry (e.g., unoccupied rooms and leftover food), well-being engage- ment, and skills volunteering (Rhou & Singal, 2020). Although companies in innovative yet controversial industries like home-sharing are more likely to engage in CSR activities during a crisis to improve their reputation, little is known about how customers perceive and respond to these CSR activities.
The COVID-19 pandemic has not only challenged existing CSR as- sumptions, concepts, and practices, but has also reshaped stakeholders’ expectations of CSR (Crane & Matten, 2021; P´erez & Del Bosque, 2014).
However, most CSR research in the sharing economy was conducted before the outbreak, and focused on the economic, environmental, and ethical aspects of CSR (e.g., Fatma et al., 2020; Jeon et al., 2020). While a growing body of research has examined the impact of CSR in general, and strategic philanthropy in particular, on hotel financial performance and customer decision making, empirical evidence has been mixed (e.g., Chen & Hang, 2021; Shin et al., 2021; Tong et al., 2021). In fact, from the perspective of non-trivial costs, the economic uncertainty induced by the pandemic might lead investors to perceive CSR as a threat to firm survival (Chen et al., 2021). However, opposing views note that CSR during a crisis offers firms the opportunity to reposition their business for a better competitive stance (Souto, 2009; Yelkikalan & K¨ose, 2012).
Qiu et al. (2021) further argued that a positive corporate image created through CSR activities contributes to favorable evaluations in capital markets. These conflicting views do not inform P2P accommodation managers whether investing in CSR during difficult times is a worth- while pursuit. Therefore, empirical investigations into the effectiveness of CSR in driving customers’ intention to repurchase/rebook P2P ac- commodation are warranted in the COVID-19 era. Furthermore, Martí- nez and Del Bosque (2013) pointed out that the goal of CSR is not only to enhance customer trust, but also to solidify customer identification with the company (C-C identification). However, empirical studies presenting a comparison of these two distinct mechanisms underlying CSR’s effect on repurchase intention in the sharing economy context are rare, though these mediation relationships have been explored in the mainstream management literature (e.g., Glaveli, 2020; Martínez & Del Bosque, 2013).
The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted public health authorities to promote new behavioral norms, such as maintaining social distancing and other preventive behaviors to curb the spread of infection (Lees et al., 2020). Yet, people’s decision to engage in health-protective behavior by not staying in shared-space or P2P accommodation may
depend on their personal responsibilities and moral obligations (i.e., personal norms) (Bouman et al., 2021) or the perceived social pressure to adhere to such behaviors (i.e., social norms) (Lees et al., 2020). Even so, no empirical study has yet examined the impact of norms sur- rounding COVID-19 health-protective behavior on customer decision-making in the context of P2P accommodation. As advocated by Roos and Hahn (2019), investigating personal and social norms is necessary when it comes to behaviors that involve social change. To fill this research gap, this study introduces personal and social norms as moderators between the two routes from CSR to Airbnb repurchase intention. We also argue that the inconsistent findings on the impact of CSR on behavioral outcomes can be partly attributed to these two norms that prevent people from acting based on their initial preferences.
Against this backdrop, the objectives of this study were threefold: (1) to understand how customers assess the CSR activities implemented by Airbnb during the COVID-19 pandemic; (2) to evaluate the effectiveness of CSR in driving customers’ intention to repurchase/rebook P2P ac- commodation through customer trust and C-C identification; and (3) to examine the moderating effects of personal and social norms on the relationship between repurchase intention and its determinants. To achieve these goals, we employed partial least squares-structural equa- tion modelling (PLS-SEM) to analyze data obtained from 528 Airbnb users in the US. By doing so, this study contributes to the existing literature in three ways. First, to the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first attempt to understand how consumers perceive and respond to Airbnb’s CSR initiatives in the COVID-19 era. Specifically, this study contributes to a more holistic understanding of customer assessment of CSR in the sharing economy by highlighting the important but largely neglected role of strategic philanthropy CSR. Unlike prior research that conceptualized CSR in a reflective, second-order manner (Fatma et al., 2020; Jeon et al., 2020), this study modelled CSR as a formative second-order construct that enables P2P accommodation companies to effectively allocate their limited resources to CSR activ- ities. Second, this study is among the first to elucidate the multiple routes CSR takes to achieve repurchase intention in the sharing economy context. The findings of this study show that perceived CSR does not affect Airbnb repurchase intention directly but rather indirectly through the mediation of C-C identification. Therefore, this study advances our understanding for the process underlying the effect of perceived CSR on repurchase intention from a social identification perspective. Third, this study represents a pioneering attempt to consider norms concerning COVID-19 health-protective behavior in the sharing economy context.
Our moderation analysis reveals that personal norms weaken the effects of perceived CSR and customer trust on repurchase intention. Therefore, this study reconciles the inconsistent findings on the effectiveness of CSR in generating favorable behavioral outcomes, while also contributing to the crisis management literature by empirically testing heretofore un- tested moderation mechanisms that are salient to consumers’
decision-making in the context of P2P accommodation.
2. Literature review and theoretical background
2.1. Peer-to-peer accommodation services in the sharing economy The sharing economy has emerged as a new socioeconomic system that is characterized by non-possession, temporary access, and the redistribution of tangible and intangible assets (e.g., money, space, or time) (Kathan et al., 2016). By reversing the consumption paradigm, the sharing economy has challenged sole ownership as the only fundamental way to enjoy product benefits (Lamberton & Rose, 2012). Facilitated by community-based digital platforms, people can now easily share their idle resources, such as accommodation (Airbnb: home-sharing services), transportation (Uber: ride-hailing), money (LendingClub: P2P lending), skills (TaskRabbit: task shares), and meals (EatWith: hosting of dinner parties) with one another (Tussyadiah & Pesonen, 2016). Although the sharing economy has disrupted traditional business models, it provides a
new source of income, promotes community-building, and alleviates environmental problems such as hyper-consumption and pollution by offering a more sustainable mode of consumption (Buhalis et al., 2020;
Chuah et al., 2021).
The epitome of home-sharing companies, Airbnb offers an online P2P platform that matches guests seeking accommodation with hosts willing to rent out their spare space, whereby both parties are charged a modest transaction fee (Phua, 2019). Since its inception in 2008, Airbnb has revolutionized the tourism and hospitality industry, posing a massive threat to traditional lodging providers, especially budget and mid-range hotels (Alrawadieh et al., 2020). By 2017, Airbnb had out- paced the world’s top five hotel brands combined (i.e., Marriott Inter- national, Hilton Worldwide, Intercontinental Hotel Group, Wyndham Worldwide, and Accor Hotel Group) in terms of total listing number and market valuation (Hartmans, 2017). The annual growth rate for global P2P accommodation was projected at 31% between 2013 and 2025, over six times faster than traditional bed-and breakfasts and hostels (World Bank Group, 2018). The rapid growth of P2P accommodation is driven not only by economic gains, but also by the desire for the authentic local experience, unique character, and homely feel offered by the accommodation (home benefits), as well as for direct interactions with hosts and local communities (social benefits) (e.g., Amaro et al., 2019; Guttentag et al., 2018; So et al., 2018).
However, the emergence of COVID-19 has taken a massive toll on the global tourism and hospitality industry, which in turn has wreaked havoc on the global economy. In particular, the home-sharing business has been adversely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic due to travel restrictions, border closure, lockdowns, and booking cancellations (Shin et al., 2021). According to AirDNA, new bookings on Airbnb plummeted by 85% and cancellation rates were nearly 90% during the pandemic (Temperton, 2020). By the time the pandemic reached its peak in the second quarter of 2020, Airbnb’s revenue had fallen 72% year-over-year to $334.78 million, leading to a loss of $575.6 million. To tackle this crash, Airbnb has since raised emergency funding, curtailed its mar- keting spending, laid off a quarter of its staff, and slashed staff and ex- ecutive bonuses (Arbil, 2020).
2.2. Corporate social responsibility in the sharing economy
CSR holds a prominent place in the social marketing scholarship (Kim et al., 2017). From the practitioner perspective, it is an important corporate agenda in today’s socially conscious marketplace (Du et al., 2010). Generally, CSR is defined as “the managerial obligation to take action to protect and improve both the welfare of society as a whole and the interest of organizations” (Davis & Blomstrom, 1975, p. 6). The key characteristic of CSR is being a good corporate citizen that contributes positively to society, beyond what is required for profit maximization (Beise-Zee, 2011; McWilliams, 2015). Examples of CSR include chari- table giving, diversity initiatives, engagement in community develop- ment, and environmental protection via waste elimination, among others (Sen & Bhattacharya, 2001). Three decades ago, Carroll (1991) proposed and depicted a four-dimensional model of CSR in a pyramid, in which fundamental responsibilities (economic and legal) form the bot- tom of the pyramid while more advanced responsibilities (ethical and philanthropic) are placed at the top of the pyramid. The economic dimension is concerned with a corporation’s obligations to improve its operational efficiency, competitive position, and profitability. The legal dimension refers to the obedience to laws and regulations under which the firm operates, while the ethical dimension pertains to adherence to moral principles. The philanthropic dimension involves participation in voluntary and charitable activities. By engaging in CSR activities, firms can not only elicit positive attitudes and supportive behaviors from stakeholders (e.g., investment in the company, repeat purchases, and word-of-mouth recommendation), but can also enhance corporate image and firm performance in the long run (Du et al., 2010). Since customers tend to reward companies for their socially responsible
behaviors (Martínez & Del Bosque, 2013), engaging in CSR activities allows companies to ‘do well by doing good’ – that is, they can make a profit and simultaneously contribute to a better world (Falck & Heblich, 2007). Therefore, CSR is regarded as a win-win strategy which ulti- mately leads to the sustainable development of companies and societies (Falck & Heblich, 2007; Jeon et al., 2020).
The sharing economy faces increasing pressure to operate in a so- cially responsible manner. The ‘dark side’ or undesirable effects intro- duced by the sharing economy include unfair competition to traditional hotel/taxi operators, rising housing prices, precarious working condi- tions for sharing economy providers, and nuisance to neighborhoods (Buhalis et al., 2020; Hwang, 2019). In this vein, stakeholders, such as governments, business leaders, activist groups, and communities, have warned sharing economy companies of the financial and reputational risks that arise from the latter’s lack of CSR commitment (Kim, 2017).
Aware of these risks, sharing economy companies have begun to embrace various CSR programs in an attempt to establish themselves as ethical and responsible. For instance, Uber has donated USD $3 million in support of social causes, including $1.2 million to support under- represented minorities and women in tech (Dickey, 2017). On the other hand, Airbnb worked with Make-A-Wish®, one of the world’s leading children’s charities, to grant one wish per day to children with critical illnesses (Airbnb, 2016). Airbnb also collaborated with its non-profit partners to tackle homelessness. For example, it donated USD $100, 000 to WIN, a New York City-based organization that provides shelter and assistance to homeless women and their children (Çam, 2016). In California, Airbnb invested USD $25 million in projects that support affordable housing and small businesses (Airbnb, 2019). Another suc- cessful Airbnb CSR initiative is the Open Homes program, which le- verages Airbnb’s global network of listings to help people in need when emergencies and disasters strike (Von Briel & Dolnicar, 2021). Under this initiative, in collaboration with the Fisher House Foundation, Airbnb provided alternative accommodations for the families of military personnel and veterans traveling for medical treatment (Airbnb, 2018).
In 2020, Airbnb hosts opened their homes, for free, to people affected by Australian bushfires (Winter, 2019) and to 100,000 COVID-19 re- sponders and frontline workers (Airbnb, 2020b).
Upon analyzing the commonalities between CSR and the sharing economy, Rudnicka (2017) concluded that “the success of the collabo- rative (sharing) economy is not possible without the reputation and responsibility for business decisions and actions” (p. 146). In fact, the Managing Director of the Australian Center for CSR, Dr. Leeora Black, stated that “the sharing economy as a concept is very attractive from the perspective of corporate social responsibility and sustainability”
(Cooper, 2016). However, an analysis of the existing literature (see Table 1) suggests that compared with the traditional hotel industry, the CSR of P2P accommodations during global crises like the COVID-19 pandemic has not been sufficiently explored. As noted by P´erez and Del Bosque (2014), the managerial implications and suggestions drawn from prior research on CSR may not be applicable to companies during a crisis because of stakeholders’ changing expectations of CSR. In fact, CSR was an underexplored topic in the sharing economy field even before the pandemic.
Another notable knowledge gap in the sharing economy literature pertains to the conceptualization of CSR. While previous researchers have acknowledged the multifaceted nature of CSR, they have mainly focused on its other aspects while neglecting strategic philanthropy. For example, Jeon et al. (2020) operationalized CSR in the ridesharing service context as a reflective second-order construct comprising eco- nomic, ethical, and environmental dimensions. They found that CSR has a positive impact on customers’ brand attitudes and self-brand connection. Using a similar conceptualization, Fatma et al. (2020) examined the impact of customers’ perceived CSR of ridesharing ser- vices on brand commitment, revealing that this relationship is mediated by brand trust and brand identification. However, since reflective specifications assume that each dimension of CSR is interchangeable,
Table 1
Prior studies on CSR.
Authors Research objectives Constructs Context/Timing Main findings
Jeon et al.
(2020) To investigate how a firm’s CSR practices affect customers’ attitudes, self-brand connection, and brand preference with ridesharing service firms.
IV=Perceived CSR (environment,
economy, and ethics) Ridesharing service/
Before COVID-19 Perceived CSR has a significant but indirect impact on customers’ brand preference through brand attitudes and self-brand connection.
Med =Brand attitude and self- brand connection
DV =Brand preference Fatma
et al.
(2020)
To assess the key components of perceived CSR and their impact on consumers’ trust, identification, and commitment to ridesharing service brands.
IV=Perceived CSR (environment,
economy, and ethics) Ridesharing service/
Before COVID-19 No direct relationship is observed between perceived CSR and brand commitment. The effect of PCSR and brand commitment is mediated by brand trust and brand identification.
Med =Brand trust and brand identification
DV =Brand commitment Wang and
Ho (2017)
To examine how CSR influences perceived value of sustainability and consumer- company identification, which in turn affects social capital and customer citizenship behavior.
IV=CSR; perceived value of
sustainability; C-C identification Home sharing/Before
COVID-19 CSR has a positive effect on perceived value of sustainability and C-C identification. The effects of perceived value of sustainability and C-C identification on consumer citizenship behavior are mediated by social capital.
Med =Social capital DV =Customer citizenship behavior
Shin et al.
(2021) To examine the impact of hotel CSR for strategic philanthropy on booking behavior and hotel performance
IV =Hotel CSR for strategic
philanthropy Hotel/During COVID-19 Hotel CSR for strategic philanthropy negatively affects firm market value and customer booking behavior. The value of hotel CSR depends on the nature and environmental contexts of CSR.
DV =Customers’ booking behavior; firms’ market value Tong et al.
(2021) To investigate the effect of CSR contribution timing during COVID-19 pandemic on consumers’ prepayment purchase intention
IV =CSR contribution timing in
COVID-19 Hotel/During and after the
peak COVID-19 CSR contributions during the COVID-19 outbreak (vs. after its peak) lead to higher consumers’ prepayment purchase intentions, revealing the impact of CSR contribution timing. This relationship is partially mediated by psychological contracts, and also contingent on the distance to the COVID-19 risk center.
CSR contributions during the outbreak heightens prepayment purchase intentions among individuals who were in the peripheral area of a COVID-19 outbreak whereas the opposite effect occurred for individuals who were in the risk center.
Med =Psychological contracts DV =Consumers’ prepayment purchase intention
Mod =Psychological typhoon eye effect (risk center area vs.
non–risk center area)
Chen and Hang (2021)
To examine the impact of CSR community support on tourists’ intentions to spread positive word-of-mouth and their intentions to visit the hotel.
IV =CSR community support Hotel/During and after
COVID-19 CSR community support through the provision of free accommodation to homeless people increases tourists’ intentions to spread positive WOM but reduces their tourists’ intentions to visit, presenting potential business risks. The results further show that CSR community support in the form of providing free accommodation to medical professionals has little impact, as it shows no significant difference to the control scenario (no CSR initiatives).
Med =Hotel warmth; perceptions of hotel cleanliness
DV =Intentions to spread positive word-of-mouth;
intention to visit
Qiu et al.
(2021) To examine the impact of CSR on the stock returns of hospitality firms during the COVID- 19 pandemic to observe whether or not investors have positive reactions to the market.
– Hotel, travel agents, tourist
transportation, catering/
During COVID-19
Engaging in CSR activities can increase the stock returns and stakeholder attention of hospitality firms during the pandemic.
Community-related CSR has a stronger and more immediate effect on stock returns than customer- and employee-related CSR.
Chua et al.
(2020) To investigate the key factors of the U.S.
tourists’ destination attachment and their intentions to return to European and Asian destinations after the pandemic.
IV =CSR; monetary promotion;
perceived responses efforts;
destination attachment; health preventive behavior
Tourism/During COVID-
19 CSR and the perceived response efforts are
essential to create the destination attachment and the approach behavioral intentions during the pandemic. The health preventive behavior and the destination attachment are the key predictors of the approach behavioral intentions.
Antecedents to health preventive behavior:
- Perceived susceptibility - Perceived severity - Perceived self-efficacy - Cues to actions - Ascribed responsibility DV =Approach behavioral intentions
Current
study i) To understand how customers assess the CSR activities implemented by Airbnb during the COVID-19 pandemic
ii) To evaluate the effectiveness of CSR in enhancing customer trust, C-C identification, and repurchase intention. iii) To examine the moderating effects of personal and social norms on the relationship between repurchase intention and its determinants.
IV=Perceived CSR (strategic philanthropy, economy, environmental, and ethical) Med =Customer trust (trust-in- platform and trust-in-host) Mod =Personal norms; social norms
P2P accommodation/
During COVID-19 Strategic philanthropy carries the most weight in determining customers’ assessments of CSR, followed by environmental, economic, and ethical CSR. Perceived CSR does not affect repurchase intention directly but rather indirectly through the mediation of C-C identification. Personal norms weaken the effects of perceived CSR and customer trust on repurchase intention.
Notes: DV =Dependent variable; IV =Dependent variable; Med =Mediator; Mod =Moderator.
they do not allow managers to discern the relative importance of each CSR dimension in shaping customers’ overall CSR perceptions, which prevents resource prioritization. Furthermore, scant research has compared the pathways linking CSR to Airbnb repurchase intention from the social exchange and social identification perspectives. As such, there is a need to examine the mediating roles of trust and C-C identi- fication to better understand the underlying process through which repurchase intention is formed.
Though engaging in strategic philanthropy activities has become imperative for hospitality firms to be recognized by local communities during a crisis (Shin et al., 2021), findings on these activities’ effec- tiveness remain inconclusive. For example, Qiu et al. (2021) analyzed 40 hospitality firms listed in the China Stock Exchange and found that engaging in CSR activities increased stock returns during the COVID-19 pandemic. Tong et al. (2021) verified the impact of CSR contribution timing by showing that CSR participation during the pandemic led to greater prepayment purchase intention among hotel guests. On the other hand, Chen and Hang (2021) showed that hotels can enjoy reputational benefits via word-of-mouth recommendations by providing community support in the form of free accommodation to homeless people. How- ever, such initiatives may reduce tourists’ intention to visit, putting business at risk. Likewise, Shin et al. (2021) documented the negative impact of strategic philanthropy CSR on hotels’ market value and cus- tomers’ booking intention amid the pandemic. These inconsistent find- ings highlight the need to look into potential moderators that may deter firms from reaping desired business benefits (e.g., repeat business) via CSR investment.
The last row of Table 1 depicts how the current research adds to prior studies on the sharing economy by (1) incorporating strategic philan- thropy to provide a comprehensive assessment of customer perceptions of CSR in times of crisis; (2) conceptualizing CSR as a formative, second- order construct; (3) elucidating two pathways (trust vs. C-C identifica- tion) from CSR to repurchase intention; and (4) examining norms (personal vs. social) that hinder customers from responding favorably to firms’ CSR initiatives.
2.3. Stakeholder theory
CSR is at the heart of stakeholder theory, since it is “a process to integrate social, environmental, ethical, human rights and consumer concerns into their business operations […] with the aim of maximizing the creation of shared value for their owners/shareholders and for their other stakeholders and society at large” (European Commission, 2011, p. 6). Stakeholder theory began to gain momentum in the mid-1980s when Freeman (1984) suggested replacing the ‘managerial model’
with a ‘stakeholder model’ on the premise that changes in the external environment necessitate the development of new managerial un- derstandings and actions that look beyond the traditional pool of stakeholders (e.g., employees, suppliers, shareholders, and customers) (Jamali, 2008; Jonker & Foster, 2002). In essence, a stakeholder can be any person, group, organization, institution, society, or even the natural environment with which the firm interacts while pursuing its goals (Oberseder et al., 2013). The stakeholder theory explicates the nature, ¨ processes, and outcomes of firms’ relationships with their stakeholders (Driscoll & Starik, 2004). Peloza and Shang (2011) noted that these relationships can be strengthened through the implementation of CSR activities. Indeed, Barnett (2007) argued that CSR’s contribution to firm value hinges on its ability to generate positive firm-stakeholder re- lations. In this vein, corporate communications play a crucial role in creating awareness about CSR activities, spreading a positive corporate image, and establishing a strong bond between the firm and its stake- holders (Maignan & Ferrell, 2004). Among the various stakeholders, a firm’s customers are one of the most influential stakeholders for its CSR initiatives (Jeon et al., 2020). Martínez and Del Bosque (2013) indicated that customers who are aware of a company’s CSR activities respond favorably to the company by repurchasing its products or services and
developing higher levels of trust and C-C identification.
2.4. Hypothesis development
2.4.1. The influence of perceived CSR on repurchase intention
Repurchase intention is the behavioral manifestation of loyalty that reflects a customer’s willingness to purchase a product or service repeatedly (Baloglu, 2002). Gaining customer loyalty is the key goal of any firm because loyal customers do not only exhibit higher repurchase intention, but are also willing to pay more and spread positive word-of-mouth (Kandampully et al., 2015). Therefore, creating and maintaining customer loyalty helps firms achieve business growth and sustainable competitive advantage (Latif et al., 2020). For innovative disruptors like Airbnb, one of the most lucrative ways to grow their business is to lure customers away from traditional hotels and to keep them loyal. The growing popularity of Airbnb has attracted substantial interest from hospitality researchers to examine the factors that differ- entiate Airbnb from alternative accommodations and ultimately, stim- ulate customers’ repurchase intention. These factors include perceived authenticity, home benefits, economic benefits, sustainability benefits, and social interaction (Amaro et al., 2019; Liang et al., 2018b). Although CSR has received far less attention in the P2P accommodation context, its importance in influencing customer loyalty has been well docu- mented in the hotel literature. For example, Lo (2020) surveyed 160 guests of two resort hotels in Asia who had participated in CSR activities during their stay. Their results showed that customers’ experience with hotels’ CSR activities strengthens their relationship with hotel brands, which ultimately drives hotel brand loyalty. In the UK, Akbari et al.
(2020) found that customers’ perceptions of a hotel’s CSR initiatives have an indirect effect on their intention to revisit. Based on this dis- cussion, we hypothesized that:
H1. Perceived CSR has a direct positive effect on Airbnb repurchase intention.
2.4.2. The influence of perceived CSR on repurchase intention through customer trust
According to the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), in a social exchange, one party may feel obliged to reciprocate the voluntary ac- tions of another who freely offers benefits. CSR has the ability to trigger the social exchange process and motivate customers to reward firms’
voluntary actions to support customers’ welfare, such as providing high quality products, charging fair prices, understanding customers’ needs, and offering prompt after-sales service (Glaveli, 2020). Mutual trust is key to successful social exchange (Martínez & Del Bosque, 2013).
Customer trust refers to “the willingness of a party to be vulnerable to the actions of another party based on the expectation that the other will perform a particular action important to the trustor, irrespective of the ability to monitor or control that other party” (Mayer et al., 1995, p.
712). In other words, trust is developed when one party believes that an exchange party is reliable, honest, and ethical (Park et al., 2014). Trust has long been recognized as a prerequisite for the development and maintenance of long-term relationships between a company and its consumers, as it helps reduce uncertainty, information asymmetry, and the fear of opportunism associated with an exchange (Martínez & Del Bosque, 2013; Pavlou et al., 2007). Because the act of transacting with strangers and staying in their places can be risky, trust plays a salient role in the context of P2P accommodation (Ert et al., 2016). However, trust in a P2P accommodation is not limited to the hosts, but extends to the platform as well. Unlike dispositional trust (trust-in-host), which is based on consumers’ belief that hosts will meet expectations in terms of ability (e.g., hosts’ skills and competencies), benevolence (e.g., hosts’ care and willingness to act in the guests’ interests), and integrity (hosts’
honesty and promise-keeping), institution-based trust (trust-in-plat- form) focuses on the transactional environment (Liang et al., 2018a;
McKnight et al., 2002). Institution-based trust is defined as a consumer’s
belief that mechanisms like legal recourses, regulations, privacy pro- tection, payment security, and guarantees are in place to facilitate suc- cessful transactions (Lu et al., 2016).
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, Airbnb struggled with trust issues, such as when guests found surveillance cameras in their Airbnb rentals, were attacked or sexually assaulted by hosts, and were scammed by non- existent Airbnb listings (Yang et al., 2019). Martínez and Del Bosque (2013) suggested that by embedding ethical and responsible principles into corporate strategy, firms can generate more trust among stake- holders, including customers. The rationale behind this presumption is that when firms engage in stakeholder-oriented socially responsible practices, they are likely to treat their customers in a fair way, offer a safe working environment to their employees, reduce the negative im- pacts of their products on the environment, and improve the welfare of society as a whole (Oberseder et al., 2013). All this goodwill contributes ¨ to the development of a positive corporate image and reputation, thereby leading to higher levels of trust and loyalty among customers (Kim et al., 2017). The COVID-19 catastrophe has reminded us that “we are all in this together”, which offers great opportunities for businesses to actively engage in CSR activities and build stronger rapport with their customers (He & Harris, 2020). Hassan and Soliman (2021) underscored the importance of CSR for tourism destinations during the COVID-19 outbreak, as visitors consider tourism operators’ engagement in desti- nation social responsibility when deciding whether to trust them. Even before the pandemic, a vast body of empirical evidence has proven that trust is a crucial mechanism linking CSR to behavioral intention. For example, Park et al. (2017) demonstrated that CSR commitment heightens customers’ trust in a retailer and its services, which in turn encourages them to return and remain loyal. In the sharing economy context, Fatma et al. (2020) demonstrated that ridesharing companies are likely to gain customer trust if they fulfill the economic, environ- mental, and ethical dimensions of CSR. The higher customers’ trust, the higher their commitment to the brand. Thus, we postulated that:
H2. Perceived CSR has an indirect effect on Airbnb repurchase inten- tion through the mediation of customer trust.
2.4.3. The influence of perceived CSR on repurchase intention through C-C identification
The conceptual root of customer-company identity (C-C identifica- tion) is grounded in the social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), which posits that people tend to reduce their sense of social ambiguity and improve their self-esteem by affiliating themselves with others or forming social groups (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003). Ashforth and Mael (1989) were the first to explicitly consider the role of organizations in employees’ social identity. They termed the employee-organization relationship as organizational identification, or an employee’s percep- tions of oneness with or belongingness to an organization. This identity is shaped by the organization’s core values, including its organizational mission, operating principles, and leadership (Whetten & Godfrey, 1998). Later, Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) applied the theories of social identity and organizational identification to the consumer context. They introduced the notion of C-C identification, which denotes “a cognitive state of connection and proximity of the consumer to a company, generated through a subjective process of comparison between the in- dividual’s own personal identity and that of the organization” (Curr´as-P´erez & Del Bosque, 2015. p. 548). Such identification occurs when consumers find an overlap between their identity and the com- pany’s characteristics, subsequently developing psychological attach- ment to the company (Tuˇskej et al., 2013). Previous literature suggests that consumers better identify with socially responsible companies because they infer that such companies possess certain desirable traits (e.g., civic-mindedness, compassion, and activism) that resonate with their sense of self (Fatma et al., 2020; Marin & Ruiz, 2007). Further- more, Martínez and Del Bosque (2013) noted that customers’ identifi- cation is associated with greater satisfaction and loyalty towards hotel
operators. On this basis, we argue that the impact of perceived CSR on Airbnb repurchase intention is mediated by C-C identification, giving rise to the following hypothesis:
H3. Perceived CSR has an indirect effect on Airbnb repurchase inten- tion through the mediation of C-C identification.
2.4.4. The moderating role of personal norms
The notion of personal norms originates from the norm activation model developed by Schwartz (1977) to better understand individuals’
pro-social behavior, which we extend in this study to the context of health-protective behavior (e.g., hand hygiene and social distancing).
Personal norms are intrinsically motivated, in that internalized personal standards—rather than externally imposed rules—invoke the moral obligation or responsibility to perform or not to perform particular ac- tions (Bouman et al., 2021; Doran & Larsen, 2016). When individuals act in conformity with their personal norms, they feel pride for being true to themselves. In contrast, noncompliance engenders feelings of guilt and self-depreciation (Balaji et al., 2019). Roos and Hahn (2019) found that consumers’ intentions to consume collaboratively are influenced by personal norms, which is driven by normative (e.g., altruistic and biospheric value orientations) and economic/egoistic (e.g., cost savings) motives.
According to Bouman et al. (2021), the public’s supportive attitude towards COVID-19 is strongly induced by personal norms, through which people feel morally compelled to protect themselves and others.
Since personal norms are rooted in self-transcendence, they serve a more stable base for pro-social actions than extrinsic factors (e.g., social norms), for which efficacy largely depends on their salience and per- sonal relevance (Cialdini et al., 1990; Steg, 2016). Supporting this view, Lees et al. (2020) observed that Americans who perceive COVID-19 preventive health behaviors to be important tend to ignore normative pressures from psychologically-distant reference groups. In this study, personal norms refer to an individual’s own moral obligation to engage in health-protective behaviors by not staying in P2P accommodations during the COVID-19 pandemic (Roos & Hahn, 2019). Health-protective behaviors are activated when self-awareness of the adverse conse- quences of sharing a space with others (e.g., getting infected by the hosts or other guests who have the coronavirus) drives people to ascribe re- sponsibilities to minimize the risk of virus transmission (e.g., avoid staying in P2P accommodation). Since personal norms refrain people from acting in accordance with their personal interests (Doran & Larsen, 2016), firms’ engagement in CSR activities may not necessarily lead to higher levels of customer trust, identification with the company, and repurchase intention. Therefore, we hypothesized that:
H4. Personal norms weaken the effects of (a) perceived CSR, (b) customer trust, and (c) C-C identification on Airbnb repurchase intention.
2.4.5. The moderating role of social norms
Another type of norm that has been found to explain behavior that departs from personal interest is social norms (Doran & Larsen, 2016).
Social norms are conceptually analogous to subjective norms as pro- pounded by the theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) and its predecessor, the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Azjen & Fishbein, 1980). Both theories posit that perceived social pressures to act in a certain way play a major role in shaping behavioral intention, a proxy for actual behavior (Doran & Larsen, 2016). This means there are “rules and standards that are understood by members of a group, and that guide and/or constrain social behavior without the force of laws” (Cialdini & Trost, 1998, p. 152). Violation of these norms could lead to social sanctions in the form of demonstrative disapproval, repression, discrimination, or punishment (Popitz, 2017).
Norm-governed behavior is prevalent across a range of emergencies and disasters, particularly when people engage in altruist acts and pre- vent others from suffering (Van Bavel et al., 2020). In the UK, COVID-19
mutual aid groups have been set up to provide grocery and medicine pick-up/delivery services to neighbors in self-isolation (Booth, 2020). As resolving the pandemic requires close cooperation among individuals and between citizens and their governments (Zickfeld et al., 2020), so- cial norms can be an effective means of encouraging individuals to adopt health-protective behaviors (Lees et al., 2020). Using a large national survey of American adults, Goldberg et al.’s (2020) study highlighted the influence of social norms, especially among friends and family, on people’s engagement in COVID-19 preventive behavior. In the present study, social norms refer to the perceived social pressure of significant others to not stay in P2P accommodations during the COVID-19 pandemic (Roos & Hahn, 2019). While an ample body of evidence in- dicates that consumers’ decision to stay in P2P accommodations is influenced by social norms (Amaro et al., 2019; Mao & Lyu, 2017; So et al., 2018), its potential moderating effect remains underexplored.
Balaji et al. (2019) examined pro-environmental behavior as a moder- ator in the green hotel context and demonstrated that social norms weaken the effect of green hotel attributes on guests’ trust. On this basis, we argue that if consumers perceive social pressure to perform health-protective behavior consistent with the expectations of reference groups, they are less likely to respond positively to firms’ CSR efforts.
This results in lower trust and identification with P2P accommodation companies. Thus, we proposed that:
H5. Social norms weaken the effects of (a) perceived CSR, (b) customer trust, and (c) C-C identification on Airbnb repurchase intention.
2.4.6. Control variables
To avoid confounding variables that may distort the results of the proposed relationships, we included demographic variables such as age, income, education level, and marital status as control variables in our model. Previous studies report that young, budget-conscious, and better educated people as well as those who travel with children are more likely to stay in an Airbnb (Alrawadieh et al., 2020; Poon & Huang, 2017). In addition, we controlled for the effect of past Airbnb experience on repurchase intention in terms of number of stays, accommodation type, and satisfaction. Since all the control variables in this study were categorical variables, they were dummy-coded as zeroes and ones (Field, 2009).
2.5. Proposed conceptual model
The conceptual model of this study is rooted in the stakeholder theory, complemented by the norm activation model and the TPB. The
integration of these theories provides a more comprehensive under- standing of how consumers respond to Airbnb’s CSR activities in consideration of new norms brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Specifically, the present study extends the stakeholder theory to the context of the COVID-19 pandemic by examining the direct effect of perceived CSR on Airbnb repurchase intention as well its indirect effect through the mediation of customer trust and C-C identification. In addition, this study simultaneously investigates the moderating roles of personal and social norms on CSR’s routes to repurchase intention, thus offering additional insights into the potential boundary conditions that exist in the stakeholder theory. The proposed conceptual model is depicted in Fig. 1.
3. Methods 3.1. Research design
Data was collected in January 2021 through Amazon M-Turk, an online consumer panel that connects researchers to a more ethically and socioeconomically diverse sample compared to alternative data collec- tion methods (e.g., face-to-face and social media) (Buhrmester et al., 2011; Casler et al., 2013). Since M-Turk offers an inexpensive and effi- cient way of collecting data with reliable results (Goodman et al., 2013), many tourism and hospitality researchers have relied on this platform to gain quick access to a relatively large number of Airbnb users (e.g., Mao et al., 2020; Mao & Lyu, 2017).
The respondents of this study were recruited via the nonprobability purposive sampling technique. The rationale behind the use of this sampling technique is that researchers can easily identify individuals who are conversant with a phenomenon of interest based on predefined criteria (Etikan et al., 2016). Accordingly, screening questions were used to determine that the respondents were US consumers aged 18 years or older who had stayed in an Airbnb before (but not during) the COVID-19 pandemic. Respondents were offered a small monetary incentive in re- turn for their participation.
Prior to administering the survey, the prospective respondents were:
(1) provided a brief description of the study’s purpose; (2) informed that their participation was voluntary; and (3) assured of anonymity. The survey, which took 20 min to complete, comprised seven sections.
Section A gathered respondents’ demographic data, whereas Sections B to G looked into respondents’ perceptions of the study constructs. A total of 600 respondents were recruited, of which 528 responses were useable after screening out 72 disqualified or suspicious responses. Table 2
Fig. 1. Conceptual model.
presents the demographic information of the respondents.
3.2. Measures
To ensure the scales’ reliability and validity, all measurement items were adopted from the literature with slight modifications to fit the study context. For perceived CSR and customer trust, we conceptualized them as formative higher-order constructs that are created by multiple lower-order constructs for two reasons: (1) the constructs are formed rather than defined by their underlying dimensions; and (2) each un- derlying dimension captures a unique aspect of the construct’s domain and hence, is not necessarily interchangeable (Hair et al., 2017). We assessed strategic philanthropy (4 items), economic (4 items), environ- mental (5 items), and ethical (4 items) aspects of CSR using the scales developed by Jeon et al. (2020) and Lee et al. (2013). The measures for trust-in-platform and trust-in-host were adapted from Liang et al.
(2018a), containing five items each. C-C identification was gauged using a 4-item scale suggested by Martínez and Del Bosque (2013). Personal and social norms were examined using the scale developed by Balaji et al. (2019), containing four items each. Finally, repurchase intention was measured by adopting Mao and Lyu’s (2017) 3-item scale. All items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale, anchored from “1 = Strongly disagree” to “7 =Strongly agree”.
4. Data analysis
We employed PLS-SEM via SmartPLS 3.3.3 to test the proposed model for two main reasons. First, PLS-SEM can analyze formatively
measured constructs (e.g., perceived CSR and customer trust) without requiring additional modifications, making it superior to covariance- based SEM techniques. Second, PLS-SEM is capable of handling com- plex structural models involving a multitude of constructs, indicators, and relationships (e.g., mediation and moderation) (Hair et al., 2017).
Following the two-stage analytical procedure, we assessed the mea- surement model before the structural model.
Before proceeding to the formal PLS-SEM analysis, we tested for common method variance (CMV) using Harman’s single-factor analysis.
The results confirmed that no single factor accounted for the majority of covariance among all the constructs, as the first factor explained only 29.681% of the total variance, well below the conservative threshold of 50% (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). We also performed a full collinearity test, as recommended by Kock and Lynn (2012), to detect any constructs with variance inflation factor (VIF) values equal to or exceeding 3.3 (Hair et al., 2017). The results showed that the pathological VIFs for all constructs were in the range of 1.062–2.825. Based on these findings, we concluded that CMV was not a major concern in this study. In addition, we checked data normality based on skewness and kurtosis values. As Table 3 exhibits, the skewness and kurtosis values of all items fell within the acceptable range of ±2 (Garson, 2012), suggesting that the normality assumption was not violated.
4.1. Assessment of reflective measurement model
Three criteria were applied to assess the validity and reliability of the ten reflective (lower-order) constructs in the framework (Fig. 2), thus ensuring the quality of the measurement model. First, we examined convergent validity through indicator loadings and average variance extracted (AVE). Table 3 shows that among the 41 indicators, 37 had loadings that surpassed the ideal level of 0.708, whereas four exceeded the acceptable level of 0.40 (Hair et al., 2017). Further, the AVE values of all the constructs were greater than 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981), providing support for convergent validity. Second, we assessed internal consistency reliability via Dijkstra–Henseler’s rho (pA), which is a good proxy to the more conventional Cronbach’s alpha and the more liberal composite reliability (Hair et al., 2019). As exhibited in Table 3, all rho values were above the 0.70 threshold (Henseler et al., 2016), implying adequate construct validity. Finally, we employed the heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) criterion prescribed by Henseler et al. (2015) to ascertain discriminant validity. As depicted in Table 4, all HTMT values were below the 0.85 threshold, signifying the discriminant nature of the measured constructs.
4.2. Assessment of formative measurement model
In this study, perceived CSR and customer trust were modelled as reflective-formative higher-order components (HOCs). To estimate these two HOCs, we applied a two-stage approach (Sarstedt et al., 2019), wherein the latent variable scores obtained from the repeated indicator approach in stage one were later used as manifest variables for the HOCs in stage two. The assessment of formative indicators involves exami- nations of indicator collinearity and the significance and relevance of indicator weights. As listed in Table 5, the VIF values of all indicators were below the 3.3 threshold (Hair et al., 2017), ruling out the possi- bility of multicollinearity issues. Table 5 further shows that all the in- dicators’ weights were statistically significant, confirming their relevancy to their respective HOCs. Specifically, the strategic philan- thropy component had the highest weight contribution to perceived CSR (0.569, p < 0.001); thus, it can be considered the most important dimension. This was followed by the environmental (0.235, p <0.005), economic (0.216, p <0.001), and ethical (0.179, p <0.01) components of CSR.
Table 2
Profile of respondents.
Demographic characteristics Frequency %
Region USA
Central region 104 19.7
Northeast region 163 30.9
Southern region 179 33.9
Western region 82 15.5
Gender
Male 277 52.5
Female 251 47.5
Age 18-25 61 11.6
26-35 205 38.8
36-45 137 25.9
46-55 70 13.3
Above 55 55 10.4
Marital status
Single 137 25.9
Married 330 62.5
Divorced/Widowed 20 3.8
Live together 41 7.8
Monthly income
USD 1000 and below 60 11.4
USD 1001-2000 53 10.0
USD 2001-3000 127 24.1
USD 3001-4000 106 20.1
USD 4001-5000 84 15.9
Above USD 5000 98 18.6
Education
High school 42 8.0
College 79 15.0
Bachelor’s degree 263 49.8
Master’s degree 129 24.4
Doctoral degree 15 2.8
Number of stays in Airbnb in the past years
1-2 376 71.2
3-4 116 22.0
5 and above 36 6.8
Type of accommodation in the last trip
Entire place 213 40.3
Private room 230 43.6
Shared room 85 16.1