An Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education at The Application-Oriented Universities in China: A Conceptual
Framework
Wang Na1,2*, Salmah Topimin3, Noor Fzlinda Fabeil4, Merlyn Rita Buncha4
1 School of Management Science and Engineering, Baise University, Guangxi, China
2 PhD Candidate, Faculty of Business, Economics and Accountancy, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
3 Entrepreneurship Research and Development Centre (ERDEC), Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
4 Faculty of Business, Economics and Accountancy, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Accepted: 15 December 2020 | Published: 28 December 2020
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Abstract: Innovation and entrepreneurship have been regarded as the main driving forces for China's economic development. Therefore, cultivating innovative and entrepreneurial talent becomes a crucial task and this effort involves educating and training activities which are delivered mainly at universities in China. In transforming and upgrading the Chinese economy, one of the efforts that has been initiated by the government is through the transformation of the colleges and universities in China into the application-oriented universities. The main objectives of the establishment of the application-oriented universities relate to the development of application-oriented education, cultivation of application-oriented talents and construction of application-oriented universities. Through these objectives, it is believed that this new cluster of universities is more relevant in facilitating the economic development and establishing the innovation system of China. However, little is known about the extent to which entrepreneurship education has been implemented in these universities. This paper provides discussion on a relevant literature to support the link between entrepreneurship education and application-oriented universities. A conceptual framework will be developed from the discussion and will be used as a basis for future empirical research.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship education, application-oriented university, China
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1. Introduction
Innovation and entrepreneurship are an important driving force for a country's social and economic development. In 2015, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang pointed out in his government work report that “promoting mass entrepreneurship and innovation can not only expand employment, increase residents’ income, but also promote vertical social mobility and fairness and justice”. In the mid-1970s, the western economy began to undergo major changes.
Knowledge and technology gradually replaced capital and labor and became the main driving force of economic growth (Romer, 1986). Large enterprises that used the scale and scope of the economy encountered a serious crisis, while entrepreneurial activities and small businesses have flourished, making outstanding contributions to employment, innovation and regional development. The phenomenon of innovation and entrepreneurship has therefore begun to receive special attention. Especially after the 1980s, the third technological revolution triggered changes in the characteristics of technological progress, further strengthening the important
role of entrepreneurship and small businesses in the economic system. Since then, innovation and entrepreneurship research has begun to flourish. At the same time, the fact that the global economy relies more on small and medium-sized enterprises to bring development motivation has prompted governments and all walks of life to pay attention to how to actively create and train more innovative and entrepreneurial entrepreneurs to solve various weaknesses in economic development phenomenon. As an agent of change, entrepreneurs bring new ideas and innovation that can make substantial changes to the landscape of the socioeconomic of a country. As such, it becomes the interest of governments in many countries to promote entrepreneurship in society and to cultivate and strengthen entrepreneurial spirit and create a good entrepreneurial environment (Zhang Yuli, Nie Wei, Yang Jun & Xue Hongzhi, 2006). In ensuring the process of cultivating and strengthening the entrepreneurial spirit of society, various efforts have been introduced by government of many countries, and China is no exception. One of the efforts that was taken by China is through its education system. This effort is consistent with the belief that universities are an important organization which provide innovative and entrepreneurial resources needed to promote innovation and entrepreneurship (Souitaris, Zerbinati & Al-Laham, 2007). Many empirical studies have shown that innovation and entrepreneurship (at least in some aspects) can be taught and cultivated (e.g. Kuratko, 2005;
Drucker, 1985; Gorman et al. 1997). Therefore, various models of innovation and entrepreneurship education are considered to be important methods to promote the formation of individual entrepreneurs (Martin, 2013). Although there is still some disagreement on the role of innovation and entrepreneurship models in influencing entrepreneurial tendency, previous research has shown that innovation and entrepreneurship support positively affects entrepreneurial tendency (e.g. Coduras, 2008; Oftedal, 2017; Saeed, 2015). It is through the entrepreneurship education process that entrepreneurial awareness, knowledge and experience can be cultivated and creative thinking as well as the sense of self-worth and self-accountability can be developed (Liu Fan, Wang Lijun & Wei Jun, 2008; Luo Yuan, 2000). With regards to the entrepreneurship education at the university level, it is argued that the education process helps students to identify opportunities, integrate resources, put ideas into practice and create value (Mei Weihui, 2008). Realising the significance of entrepreneurship education on the development of entrepreneurship talent in China, the government has made major changes in the education system, for example, through the introduction of an IEE approach, and the establishment of the application-oriented universities. However, the extent to which the innovative and entrepreneurship education (IEE) in the application oriented universities (AOU) has achieved its objectives requires further investigation. Thus, this paper proposes the conceptual framework for researching the IEE in the AOU in the China context. The following section provides the literature review on the subject matter which include the evolution of universities and overview of innovation and innovation and entrepreneurship education in the China context. This is followed by a discussion on the proposed conceptual framework for the IEE at the AOU in China.
2. Literature review
The background of innovation and entrepreneurship education in China—Evolution of universities and colleges in China
The classification of colleges and universities in China started in 1958 with the introduction of the policy of the Training Talents and Teachers for Industrial Construction, Developing Specialized Colleges, and Rectifying and Strengthening Comprehensive Universities by the Ministry of Education. This effort was the initial form of the development of the classification of Chinese colleges and universities. Under the macro background of China's entry into the comprehensive construction of a well-off society and the popularisation of higher education,
the classification and positioning of higher education institutions have become a hot and difficult issue in China's higher education sector (Liu Keli, 2004). Adhering to classification construction and characteristic development are considered as the basic experience of Chinese universities to achieve sustainable development and the strategic choice to achieve connotative development (Du Binheng & Wang Xiaochen, 2019). The categorization of colleges and universities in China is in line with the country’s development plan-to build an educational power. After the China's higher education has entered the stage of mass development, the country has faced the issue of irrational structure of higher education, disciplines and specialties; thus causing the inability of the personnel training to meet the needs of economic and social development (Chen Houfeng, 2005). In order to adapt to the new development situation from a planned economic system to a market economic system, universities have to make drastic changes, switching from the concept of convergent universities to universities with specific characteristics.
At the beginning of 2017, the Ministry of Education of China issued the Opinions of the Ministry of Education on the Establishment of Higher Education Institutions during the 13th Five-Year Plan Period, which divided universities into three types: research based, application- oriented and vocational skills based （Ministry of Education, PRC，2017). Although the issuance of this policy helped to establish the classification of the Chinese universities, it did not clarify the classification standards, classification indicators, and classification system construction. In other words, there is no clear classification standard for what kind of university should belong to which type of university. At the same time, more advanced areas of education in other parts of China are also conducting research and experimentation on the classification of universities. For example, a higher education layout structure and development plan (2015- 2030)(Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, 2019) was issued in Shanghai which was called as the Shanghai Higher Education Promotion Regulations and became the country’s first local higher education regulation. The plan clarified the classification system of higher education institutions with laws and regulations. Based on the plan, the main functions of talent cultivation and scientific commitment research were divided into four types: academic research, applied research, applied technology research and applied skill research. In addition, with regards to the setting and construction of disciplines, the plan has divided it into three types: comprehensive, multi-discipline, and characteristic. Other effort in classifying universities in China in 2019 was also documented in the Standards for the Classification and Setting of General Higher Education Institutions (Ministry of Education China, 2019).
Although these initiatives show that research and practice on classifying universities in China are still in progress, colleges and universities take the initiative to position themselves into the education mainstream. Therefore, it is under this situation that applied universities have emerged as one of the significant groups of universities in the China's education sector.
Generally, universities in the China context can be grouped into three different types as illustrated in table 1 below.
Table 1: Three different groups of universities in China Education
details
Types of universities Research universities Application-oriented
universities
Vocational and technical universities Academic
degree
Bachelor, Master, Doctorate
No degree, Bachelor, Master.
No degree, Bachelor.
Focus of education
Scientific education for
cultivating research Education for training
applied innovative talents To train first-line application professionals engaged in
talents production, management, education, etc. who directly serve the society
Teaching practice
Enhance an academic freedom. Focuses on inspiring students to study and think
independently. The level of scientific research is high, and teaching level is constantly updated due to the scientific research conducted.
Emphasizes on the cooperative education and practical teaching of industry-university- research institutes.
Teaching activities are conducted according to the company’s needs and focuses on how to complete related tasks and deal with practical problems.
Research practice
Pay equal attention to scientific research and teaching, emphasizing basic research.
Adhere to the combination of scientific research and teaching, emphasizing applied development research.
Teaching, scientific research, and practice are closely integrated. Research topics mostly come from practice and are closely related to corporate innovation.
Note. In China, some college students have only academic certificates but no degree certificates when they graduate. These are called "No Degree" when describing their degrees.
Adapted from “The characteristics and enlightenment of applied talent training in German
‘Dual System University’", by Ji Jing, Li Yuzhu, 2017, Overseas Overview, 22, p.75-80.;
“What is Europe University of Applied Sciences-An interview with Professor Dierte Oula of the University of Gallen in Switzerland”, by Wang Baoxi, Diert. Oula, 2015, Higher Education Management, 4, p. 1-5.;“A Brief Discussion on the Positioning of Applied Undergraduate Universities”，by Pan Maoyuan, Che Rushan, 2009, Higher Education Research, 5, p.34-38.
It can be seen from the table that research, application-oriented, and vocational and technical universities are different in terms of the academic degree they offer, focus of education as well as teaching and research practice. According to Pan Maoyuan and Che Rushan(2009) these classifications determine how different types of universities are run, what are their overall development’s direction and what are their operation mode, work focus and training goals. In this respect, the qualifications are relevant in providing knowledge on the focus of the universities and not for determining their rankings. While research universities focus on cultivating top-notch innovative talents, vocational and technical universities are more concerned on cultivating professional talents on the frontline of production, management and service (Pan Maoyuan, 2003). In highlighting the significance of applied-oriented universities, Hu Tianyou (2013) asserts that the development of applied-oriented universities is consistent with the actual situation of the China’s higher education sector that needs transformation. The applied-oriented universities are seen as an intermediate form of research universities and a higher form of vocational universities. The universities main focus are to cultivate applied senior professional talents and applied innovative talents of various industries locally (Pan Maoyuan, 2009; 2003). In addition, these universities are seen as significant in enriching the spiritual life and spiritual pursuit of local ordinary people (Beijing Union University Development Strategy Research Group, 2006). The scope of the application-oriented universities was also highlighted in several policy papers that were issue by the government, for example, the Decision on accelerating the development of modern vocational education (General Office of the State Council, PRC, 2014), Guiding some local undergraduate colleges and universities to transform to application-oriented (Li Keqiang, 2015) and Promoting the transformation of qualified ordinary undergraduate colleges and universities to application- oriented (Li Keqiang, 2016) .
Innovative and entrepreneurship education in the application-oriented universities in China
The concept of an IEE was first pointed out by the then Deputy Director of Training and Employment of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, Xin Changxing in 2001 by highlighting that IEE should be introduced into the training of skilled workers. The concept was then further discussed academically and highlighted several issues pertaining to the significance of the IEE to the China context. Firstly, to cultivate students’ awareness and ability in innovation and entrepreneurship is an important measure to deal with the challenges of the 21st century. Secondly, an IEE is regarded as a major development strategy to improve competitiveness of the entire nation. Thirdly, there are problems faced by the vocational schools in implementing the IEE and suggestions of how to overcome the problems should be put forward (Liu Cuiqin & Wang Ru, 2001). In 2010, the idea of the IEE was documented in the No. 3 document of Office of Ministry of Education , PRC[2010], a document that was issued by the Ministry of Education, China which pointed out that innovation and entrepreneurship education in universities is a measure to serve the strategy of building an innovative country（Ministry of Education of China, PRC, 2010). The document serves as a guideline for the development of the IEE in universities. In addition, another document was issued by the Ministry of Education, China that requires all colleges and universities to introduce an IEE courses starting from the year of 2016 and onward.
Since then, the idea of the IEE has received considerable attention among scholars in China. It is argued that the IEE is not a mechanical summation of entrepreneurship education and innovation education, but a combination of the essence of the two, innovation is the premise of entrepreneurship, and entrepreneurship is the goal of innovation (Liu Cuiqin & Wang Ru, 2001). In addition, it is believed that IEE is an educational concept in the era of knowledge economy, which refers to the development of entrepreneurial consciousness and pioneering talents in order to meet the needs of social development and national strategic planning, thus it is considered as a new teaching concept and model (Gao Xiaojie & Cao Shengli., 2007). Within this context, it is argued that the main focus of the IEE is to cultivate students' innovative spirit, entrepreneurial awareness and ability, and enhance students' initiative spirit, adventurous spirit, and independent working ability (Li Zhiyi, 2014), to improve innovation ability and employability (Zhang He, 2014) and to cultivate students' creative thinking and problem- solving qualities and encourage students to create jobs (Wang Zhanren, 2015). In this sense, it can be seen that the IEE is a unique educational concept in China that meets the needs of social and economic development and national strategic planning by cultivating students’ innovative ability, entrepreneurial spirit and ability.
The foregoing discussion shows the significance of the IEE in general and in the China context in particular. However, while many agrees on its significance, the extent to which the new education approach has met its objectives requires further investigation. Therefore, a conceptual framework for an IEE in the application-oriented universities in China is proposed in this paper.
Proposing the conceptual framework for an IEE in the application-oriented universities in China
To understand about the IEE in the AOU in China, several field visits to the universities were conducted. During the visits, it becomes apparent that various factors will directly influence the implementation of the innovation and entrepreneurship education system of the universities. First and foremost, it is believed that the extent to which the innovation and entrepreneurship education is implemented in the application-oriented universities will be
influenced by their different group of stakeholders. In this respect, the operation of universities as organisations will be affected positively or negatively by their stakeholders. Bischoff, Volkmann & Audretsch (2018: 25) asserts that stakeholders in the entrepreneurship education system consist of different groups that ‘directly or indirectly affected by entrepreneurship education either by their active involvement in providing entrepreneurship education or by being recipients of the education system’. Drawing upon the idea of systems theory that highlights organisations are embedded in their environment and actors within the environment are interconnected (Freeman, 1984), it is apparent that innovation and entrepreneurship education in the application-oriented universities in China should not be investigated in isolation. In this sense, it is suggested that any research to investigate about the implementation of entrepreneurship education should not exclude the interactions between various actors within universities and the entrepreneurship education practiced by universities.
Based on a reviewed literature and several field visits to the AOU in the China context, it is apparent that stakeholders of the universities can be divided into several groups; government, lecturer/academics, students and enterprises/corporate organisations as depicted in figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Proposed conceptual framework for an IEE in the AOU in China
Responding to the idea of stakeholder theory, it is believed that all of these actors are interconnected in the ecosystem of the entrepreneurship education of the universities, which means they can affect or will be affected by the implementation of the entrepreneurship education system. As illustrated in figure 1, the application-oriented universities is an important domain in the entrepreneurship education in which they provide students with entrepreneurial knowledge and ability that can support the creation of entrepreneurial entities (Isenberg, 2011).
However, in order for these universities to achieve the objectives of the entrepreneurship education, it will be largely depending on the interactions between universities and their stakeholders. Above all, it must be agreed and seen by stakeholders that the new IEE that will be implemented meet their needs and interests (Bischoff, Volkmann & Audretsch, 2018).
IEE in universities in China is regarded as a government-driven initiative with a focus to accelerate passive development of universities in the country (Yan Maoxin, 2011). The
An IEE (IEE) in the Application-oriented
universities Government
Enterprises/corporate organisations Lecturers/
Academics Students
IEE’s goals, content, methods and practice
government expects to increase the rate of entrepreneurship among college students through IEE which has caused the realization of a policy that focuses on the strategy to develop, expand and promote employment through entrepreneurship (Hu Jintao, 2007) and encourage college graduates to involve in self-employment ( Ministry of Education, PRC, 2010). Therefore, the interest of the Chinese government is to cultivate high-level innovative talents through IEE, improve the quality of talent training, and provide intellectual support for economic and social development (Su Juan, 2020). The Chinese central government mainly participates in the process of IEE through the policy guidance and financial support. Under the strong advocacy of the central government, the Chinese local government has gradually realized the importance to promote entrepreneurship as a career for graduates and to develop the local economy. Since the late 1990s, the government has given certain preferential treatment and support for entrepreneurship activities to college and university students. The government support includes initiatives such as tax reduction and exemption, financial assistance, financing support, and the establishment of university-student entrepreneurship parks (Yan Maoxin, 2011). In the implementation process of the IEE, the government mainly participates in the process of IEE by exercising the functions of overall planning, guidance and coordination, and evaluation and supervision (Su Juan, 2020). Therefore, the government's influence in the China's innovation and entrepreneurship education is apparent.
Meanwhile, entrepreneurship lecturer and academics are the main actors in the delivery process of IEE offered in colleges and universities. Basically, they undertake innovation and entrepreneurship teaching tasks in their efforts to cultivate students' entrepreneurial spirits, and provide students with entrepreneurial knowledge, and prepare students with entrepreneurial ability (Nie Xiaoyan, Ma Ling & Li Decai, 2017). It is their main interest to stimulate students’
sense of innovation, cultivate thier innovative thinking and entrepreneurial spirit, help students to innovate and start a business, complete the tasks of educating talents, and realize self-worth based on the knowledge that is disseminated through various courses, research activities and guided practical activities (Su Juan, 2020). Interestingly, it is suggested that to participate in an innovation process within the entrepreneurship education activities, entrepreneurship teachers in colleges and universities have to adopt to five different types of teaching roles (Ding Yuemian, 2015: 73). Ding Yuemian (2015) asserts that in delivering the entrepreneurial knowledge in colleges and universities, teachers, lecturers and academics need to perform their roles as the entrepreneurial consciousness inspirer, the entrepreneurial knowledge instructor, the entrepreneurial information transmitters, the organizers of school innovation and entrepreneurship activities and the instructor of the entrepreneurial process, tracking and guiding students' entrepreneurship. These roles have been confirmed by the CCG’s survey that was conducted in many universities (CCG, 2017). In this respect, the roles of teachers, lecturers and academics in ensuring the positive impact of the innovation and entrepreneurship education is undeniable.
In addition, college and university students are the direct recipients or beneficiaries of the IEE system (Su Juan, 2020). Generally, students expect to learn relevant courses on innovation and entrepreneurship domain, participate in entrepreneurial skills training, cultivate their own innovative thinking, enhance their entrepreneurial ability, and finally achieve their goals; to improve their innovation and entrepreneurship capabilities, to achieve their personal development need to realize their entrepreneurial dreams and to be competitive in the human resource market (Nie Xiaoyan, Ma Ling & Li Decai, 2017). In fact, based on CCG’s (2017) survey, it shows that college and university students generally believe that IEE has increased their awareness of innovation and entrepreneurship; however, they also agreed that their
entrepreneurial ability has not yet reached the desired level. Therefore, it can be argued that the IEE must be able to capture the entrepreneurial needs of students.
The role of enterprises in the IEE system is positioned as a converter, an incubator, and an acceptor (Su Juan, 2020). Enterprises participate in the IEE of colleges and universities through a school-enterprise cooperation and involve in various supporting activities such as in providing capital investment, technical support, and in facilitating the establishment of enterprises. By actively participate in the education process, enterprises can promote the transformation of high-level scientific and technological achievements and act as incubators for entrepreneurial projects, thus obtaining greater benefits (Nie Xiaoyan, Ma Ling & Li Decai, 2017). The main forms of the participation by enterprises in the IEE activities include giving lectures, guiding entrepreneurial projects, participating and guiding in innovation and entrepreneurship competitions, participating in joint projects and internship arrangements (Chen Jing, 2017). In addition, some companies have participated in IEE activities in colleges and universities in the form of participating in curriculum development, providing advice and consulting services. At this point, it can be seen that enterprises are one of the main actors in the IEE system.
Therefore, it is clear and extensive that stakeholders participate in the entrepreneurial education system, which is related to ongoing educational development (Matlay, 2009). The expectations of stakeholders are equally complex and diverse, reflecting the different needs of individuals, groups and communities in the implementation of innovation and entrepreneurship education.
Although the impact of innovation and entrepreneurship education on the entrepreneurial tendency of university students is very important, its effect is controversial. The number of entrepreneurial activities in "211" project construction universities that attach great importance to entrepreneurship education have less than the half of average number of ordinary colleges and universities in China (Yan Maoxin, 2011). The effectiveness of China's innovation and entrepreneurship education "model" has not been widely recognized by society (Yan Maoxin, 2011). It is also argued that innovation and entrepreneurship education should feedback social needs and cultivate talents that meet social needs, but it is not clear whether the innovation and entrepreneurship education model of application-oriented universities meets social needs and meets society's quality requirements for talents (Yan Maoxin, 2009; Xia Renqing, 2010). As the educated of innovation and entrepreneurship education, students should seize opportunities to improve the quality of innovation and entrepreneurship on the basis of completing the school’s teaching goals. However, it is not clear whether university students have completed the expected innovation and entrepreneurship teaching goals and meet social needs (Xia Ren Qing, 2010). In the innovation and entrepreneurship education system, the government, society and enterprise organizations should promptly feedback the needs of various innovative and entrepreneurial talents to colleges and universities, so that colleges and universities can smoothly adjust their innovation and entrepreneurship education plans. In addition, society, government, and corporate organizations provide students with various social practice positions to improve their ability to combine theoretical knowledge with work practices, but it is not clear whether the government and corporate organizations complete this (Yan Maoxin, 2009). Therefore, this study will obtain confirmation in this regard through investigation and research.
3. Research Methodology
The research methodology of this study contains a mix method approach. To ensure the credibility of the findings, both qualitative and quantitative approach will be adopted (Bryman,
2012). Firstly, the study will be relying on a survey method of quantitative research approach to collect data. And the collected data will be analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Secondly, relying on participatory observation and in-depth interview, the qualitative research approach will be used to interpret the implementation and effectiveness of innovation and entrepreneurship education of application-oriented universities in China.
4. Conclusion
This paper reviews the related literature on the AOU and IEE in China and proposes the conceptual framework that reflects with the reviewed literature on the subject matter. For the purpose of deeply understanding of the IEE of AOU in China, this study suggests to adopt a multi-angle perspective to study the problem. This study is not only a practical case study but also a theoretical study of IEE mode. This study will sort out and generalize the IEE of application-oriented universities in the context of China. Based on the investigation, with a certain theoretical depth, this study will carry out theoretical exploration, refinement and interpretation of the IEE model of AOU in China. Therefore, this research will help enrich the innovative and entrepreneurial talent training theoretical system with the new content of China, and help promote the theoretical construction of innovative and entrepreneurial talent training models in the context of China. The conceptual framework proposed in this paper is expected to have a significant impact on the effectiveness of the innovation and entrepreneurship education in the China's AOU, particularly in strengthening the entrepreneurial tendency of students.
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