An Investigation in Terms of Binding Art of Printed Books Dated 1830-1840 in Marmara University Library
Fatma Özdemir1*
1 Faculty of Theology, Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey
*Corresponding Author: [email protected] Accepted: 15 November 2021 | Published: 1 December 2021
DOI:https://doi.org/10.55057/ajress.2021.3.4.1
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Abstract: As in many branches of art within the Ottoman Empire, very valuable works have been produced in the field of book arts. When it comes to the arts of the book, the bookbinding art is understood as well as the arts such as calligraphy, illumination and miniature. Making covers that surround a book or even protect the book is a practice that has been going on since ancient times. These covers, called bindings, are known to vary depending on the material reached. Books are bound with materials such as leather, fabric, marbling, cardboard. It is seen that such a functional application is subjected to various ornaments with aesthetic concern. Although the bindings of carefully prepared manuscript books are decorated with unique ornaments, the same care has not been taken in many printed books. Nevertheless, aesthetics is not abandoned and decoration is included in printed book covers. Printed books belonging to the years 1830-1840 in Marmara University Library were examined in terms of binding arts. It is seen that the binding of the books is mostly made of leather. In addition, there are works with fabric, marbling and cardboard bound. Again, in these books, the decorations are generally formed in the form of central medallion, pendant, bracket and borders on the lower and upper covers. Ebru art has also been used both as a cover and as an ornamental element in bindings, as well as being used as inner covers and side paper of books.
Keywords: Printed Books, Bookbinding Art, Ornament
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1. Introduction
Although there are many discussions about the invention of the printing press, the general opinion is that the development and functionalization of the printing press took place in Europe in the 15th century (Green, 2011; Steinberg, 2017). At the end of the same century, the printing press was started to be used by the minorities in the Ottoman Empire, but the printing of books in Arabic or Ottoman was not allowed. The official printing house of the Ottoman Empire was opened in 1727 with the efforts of İbrahim Müteferrika. At first, books were printed one after the other, but after Müteferrika's death, printing activities sometimes slowed down and sometimes came to a standstill. In the 19th century, a dynamism is observed in printing activities (Gürcan, 1997).
In the first half of the 18th century, with the official establishment of the printing house in the Ottoman Empire, there was a significant increase in the number of books. However, aesthetics has not been abandoned. Although it is not as meticulous as the manuscripts, ornamental elements are frequently encountered in printed works. These elements stand out especially in
the book's cover and title pages. The books included in this study were examined in terms of binding art. So why bookbinding?
When we look at the Seljuk architectural structures, the crown gates are larger and more ostentatious than the building. Experts on the subject think that this is an invitation to enter (Ünal, 1982). The same logic can be applied to the art of bookbinding. The cover of the book is in a sense its entrance door. A really well embellished a cover of a book will grab the attention of the viewer and encourage them to buy it and read it. We can't know exactly whether we started with these thoughts, but there is one thing we do know: In every period, great care has been given to book bindings, whether they are manuscripts or printed.
A however, today, printed books have been abandoned on library shelves and are in danger of extinction. Some of these books were severely deformed, and the repaired ones were renewed, ignoring their artistic quality. For this reason, it is important to deal with such a subject in the context of both determining and evaluating the bindings of the books that have not lost their ornamental properties today.
In the research, the bindings of 79 books, which were found to be published between 1830- 1840 in the Rare Works Collection of the Marmara University Library, were evaluated in terms of materials and ornaments.
2. Book Bindings According to The Materials Used
Binding is a word that means leather in Arabic, to protect the leaves of a journal or book from falling apart and to keep them together; Containers made of thin wood, leather or cardboard covered with materials such as leather, paper, cloth are called (Arıtan, 1993; Arseven, 1975).
Bookbinding first emerged when the books in the form of scrolls (rolls) were replaced by rectangular-shaped papers in the Roman period. The bindings, which were made in a simple form from wood at first, developed in the hands of the Turks over time and became a branch of art (Arıtan, 2010).
The sacredness of the book in Islamic culture has given a special value to bookbinding, and this art has reached the highest level in almost all Islamic states. Especially Muslim Turks have been very successful and have a passion for this bookbinding art.
Although it varies in terms of both material and shape depending on its historical development, a classical bookbinding contains the following sections (fig. 1):
1) Front cover and back cover 2) Spine or back
3) Fore-edge flap
4) Envelope flap (The part that is usually in the shape of a triangle, covers the mouth of the book, and goes between the top cover of the book and the book) (Özen, 1998)
Figure 1: Scheme of a classical book binding.
In terms of bookbinding art, the Turks reached their highest level in the 15th and 16th centuries, and various ornament styles emerged until they reached this level. This is due to the various features of the ornaments, as well as the difference in ornament motifs and materials used (Arıtan, 1993). When the bindings are subjected to a more detailed examination, classifying the bindings according to the material used will make the subject more understandable:
1) Cardboard bindings (A simple book cover can be made by sticking a piece of paper on cardboard.)
2) Leather bindings
3) Lacquered bindings (These are the bindings created by covering the decorations made with various paints and gold on cardboard, leather or wood with a kind of varnish.) 4) Cloth bindings
5) Marbling bindings
6) Murassa bindings (decorated with precious stones) (Özen, 1998)
In this study, 79 books in the Rare Works Collection of the Marmara University Library were examined. Among these books, there are examples of leather, cloth, marbling and cardboard bindings.
2.1. Leather Bindings
Leather has been used in many areas since the time it started to meet the most basic needs of human beings such as eating, drinking, dressing and some tools. Bookbinding is one of these fields. The earliest examples of bindings that were presented as works of art were usually made of leather. It is known that ornaments were printed with metal molds on leather bindings, the first examples of which belonged to the Uighur Turks in Central Asia (Bektaşoğlu, 2009; Can
& Gün, 2006).
Leather bindings have different names according to the animal to which the leather belongs.
The binding made of goat leather is called "sahtiyan", the binding made of sheep leather is called "meşin", the binding made of gazelle skin is called "rak", and the binding made of cowhide is called "kösele" (Nas, 2005)
The vast majority of the books under review have leather bindings. However, it is not clear whether they are original or later renovated. Nevertheless, some inferences can be made visually.
Front cover
Spine or back
Back cover
Envelope flap
Fore-edge flap
Books with leather binding are Dürretü’t-Tac fî Sireti Sahibi’l-Mi’rac, Russian History, Zeyl- i Nabi, Translation of Italian History, History Iskender b.Filpos, Fetavay-ı Camiu’l-İcareteyn, Fususu’l-Hikem Commentary and Translation, Mahadar(Şerh-i Pend-i Attar), Şerh-i Baharistan, Haşiye Ale’l-Hüseyniyye (Fig. 2), İksir-i Saadet, Marifetnâme, Şerh-i Divan-i Aliyyü’l-Murtada Kerremallahü Vecheh, Haliliyye-i İsmail Hakkı Kuddise Sırruh, Kitabu’l- Hitab, Minhacü’l- Fukara’, Nevadirü’l-Asar, Ravzatü'l-Ebrarü'l-Mübeyyinü bi-Hakaiki'l- Ahbar, Ahlâk-ı Alaî, Tibyan-ı Nafi' der Tercüme-i Burhan-ı Katı', Tuhfe-i Vehbi Şerhi, Divan- ı Nedim, Divan-ı Şeyh Galib, Tezkiretü'l-Hikem fi Tabakati'l-Ümem, Divan-ı Nâilî, Divan-ı Sürûrî, Hamse-i Nergisî, Rifaa Bey Travel Book Translation, Divan-ı İzzet and Divan-ı Koca Ragıb.
Figure 2: Leather Binding Cover of Haşiye Ale’l-Hüseyniyye.
While the covers of some books are leather, the backs are made of fabric. (Fig. 3) Since there is no detailed information about these books, it is not known whether they were made later or not. This books; Ravdatü'l-Ebrar el-Mübeyyin Bi- Hakaiki'l-Ahbar, Mediyyetü'l-İhvan fî Şerhi Sübhati’s-Sıbyan, Şerhu't-Tuhfetü'l-Manzumetü'd-Dürriye fi Lugati'l-Farisiyyeti'd-Deriye and Hamse-i Nergisî dated 1839.
Figure 3: Cloth Back of Mediyyetü'l-İhvan.
2.2. Cloth Bindings
In book bindings since the end of the 13th century, cloth has been one of the most common materials besides leather. Cloth binding is a type of binding that is usually made by covering linen, silk or velvet fabric on cardboard (Özen, 1998).
Among the books examined, some of the book bindings were completely covered with cloth, while some of them only used cloth on their backs. Again, in a few examples, it is seen that the spine parts are made of leather while the back and front covers are cloth. Except for a few examples, dark green and brown cloths are generally used. (Fig. 4)
Among the books included in the scope of the subject; Tarih-i Gülşen-i Maarif, Defter-i Aşk [Hubannâme, Zenannâme, Çenginâme, Şevkengiz], Lütfiye-i Vehbî, İhyau’l-Hacc, Mefhumu’l- İzhar, Şerh-i Şemail (Explanation and Translation), Destan-i Hatem-i Tai, Kitab-ı Tercüman- ı Türki and Arabi and Şerhu’l-Usuli’l-Aşere are completely bound with fabric.
Figure 4: The Cloth Binding Cover of Lütfiye-i Vehbî.
In addition, Russian History, Süleymannâme, Şerh-i Pend-i Attar, Divan-ı Sâmi, Divan-ı Neşet Efendi, Tercüme-i Burhan-ı Katı and Divan-ı Vehbi are books with leather spine and fabric covers. But while the covers of many of these books are in good condition, the leather backs look worn. (Fig. 5) This situation makes us think that the covers of the books in question have been renewed.
Figure 5: Fabric Binding Cover of Divan-ı Sâmi (Possibly Renovated).
As a result, although the fabric is not as common as leather, it is seen that it is used in book binding, both on the cover parts and only on the backs.
2.3. Marbling Bindings
Ebru is an art form obtained by sprinkling paints on the surface of water condensed with tragacanth (Başar & Tiryaki, 2006). Marbling, according to the pattern and the person who made it; is named with words such as akkase, battal, double polishing, porphyry, sandy, scalloped, awned, combing or tidal marbling, light marbling, hatib marbling, Necmettin marbling (Özen, 1998).
Eighteen of the books included in the study have marbling on their bindings. The backs of 10 of them are covered with leather and the back of 4 of them is covered with fabric. The spines of the remaining 4 books were probably later covered with sloppy paper or tape for repair purposes. The marbling of these books was made in the classical battal marbling style, except for two examples. The two examples in question are the 3rd and 4th volumes of Mecmua-i Ulum-ı Riyaziye. (Fig. 6) The marbling used in this book is the somaki marbling obtained by making the tide on the battal and sprinkling paint on it again.
Books bound using classical battal marbling on leather are Tercüme-i Siyerü’l-Halebi, Ahkamü’l-Emrad(İlm-i Umur-i Maradıyye), Simaru’l-Esmar (Kelile and Dimne Translation), Nuhbe-i Vehbî, the 1rd and 2th volumes of Mecmua-i Ulum-ı Riyaziye, The Divan of Sünbülzâde Mehmed Vehbi and Dictionnaire Français, Arabe, Persan et Turc dictionary.
Volumes 3 and 4 of the aforementioned book named Mecmua-i Ulum-ı Riyaziye are also covered with leather back.
The backs of the books named Şerhu Salevatı Meşişiyye, Menakıb-i Melamiyye-i Bayramiyye, Hall-i Rumuz and Tercüme-i ithafü'l-udebai are also covered with fabric. (Fig. 7) In addition to these, while the back parts of Nuhbetü'l-Menkul f Kavlihi and Divan-ı Pertev Pasha were covered with tape, a white paper was attached to the back of Şerhu'l-Usuli'l-Aşere. The spine of the book named Kavaid-i Farisiye has disappeared.
2.4. Cardboard Bindings
Cardboard, as a word, means strengthened, but it is obtained by sticking a number of papers on top of each other to provide the desired thickness. Thus, the prepared cardboard becomes hard like wood and thus does not bend or twist. The resulting cardboard can be used as a simple book cover by sticking a paper on it, as well as forming the backbone of other volumes (Özen, 1998).
Among the books in question, there are six books covered with paper on cardboard. These;
Divan-ı Hâşim Efendi, Fevâidü'l-Veledeyn, Mefhumu'n-Nahv ve's-Sarf bi-Ayneyn, Divan-ı Sezayi-i Gülşenî, Dürr-i Yekta, Müzilü’l-Hafa (Şerh-i Lügat-i Şahidi) and History and Fezail- i Jerusalem-i Sharif. While the History and Fezail-i Jerusalem-i Sharif were covered with a plain paper, the others were visually enriched with colored papers and printing method. (Fig.
8-9)
Figure 8: The Binding Cover of Müzilü'l-Hafa
(Şerh-i Lügat-i Şahidi). Figure 9: The Binding Cover of Divan-ı Hâşim Efendi.
Figure 6: The Marbling Cover of the 3rd Volume of Mecmua-i Ulum-ı Riyaziye.
Figure 7: Fabric Backed Marbling cover of Tercüme-i Ithafü'l-Udebai.
3. Book Bindings According to The Decoration Used
In addition to being a protector for a book, the binding also acts as the gateway to the book, so to speak. In terms of being a visual invitation element, the art of bookbinding has reached high levels in terms of ornamentation, especially in Turks. In printed books, although not as much as manuscripts, attention was paid to aesthetics. This attention is primarily seen in the bindings of the books.
In the 19th century, the Ottoman period continued to produce bindings with classical Turkish bookbinding art features, primarily the central medallion form, rich hatayi, rumi, cloud, claw, leaf, bud, cross, rose, hilly, and crochet motifs (Gündüz, 2014).
The book bindings are named according to the decoration techniques. These:
1) Simple Binding: These are the bindings that do not have ornaments or that only have ornaments in the form of intertwined rings around the covers.
2) Bindings with Central Medallion: There are also various names for the bindings in which central medallion is used in its decoration and the way it is applied to the binding.
3) Binding with Geometric Patterns (Zilbahar): They are leather bindings on which geometric lines are drawn using crushed gold, gilding and dots are placed between the intersections (Özen, 1998).
4) Binding Made with Yekşah1: These are the bindings made by indenting the motifs with a tool called Yekşah.
5) Binding Embroidered with Gold Thread (Zerdüz): These are the bindings made by embroidering realistic motifs with yellow, pink and green threads on leather (Bektaşoğlu, 2009).
3.1. Decorations Used on Leather Bindings
The ornaments on the leather bindings in this study are generally seen on the lower and upper covers. These are mostly formed in the form of central medallion, pendant, angle iron and border.
Red leather is used in the books named İksir-i Saadet and Nevadirü’l-Asar. These two books are very similar to each other in terms of flat moldings and borders used in the binding. The border, which is seen as a flat molding on the outside, is connected to the small frame in the inner part from its corners. In İksir-i Saadet there is a central medallion decorated with floral motifs inside the small frame inside. (Fig. 10) In the same frame, there is an ornament in Nevadirü'l-Asar, which is understood to be in vegetal form, although it is not clearly visible.
1 Yekşah: A pointed metal tool.
Figure 10: Cover Decoration of İksir-i Saadet.
Similar decoration elements can be seen in other books with leather binding. Instead of writing the names of the books and telling them one by one, it would be more appropriate to tell the ones in similar forms together. First of all, the most common ornament on the lower and upper covers of the books is the central medallion motif. In these books, the central medallion motif was used by filling it with plant motifs reflecting the characteristics of the period. In some, these central medallion motifs are seen with pendants, while in some samples there is no pendant. Artifacts with central medallion decoration without pendants; Marifetnâme, Minhacü’l-Fukara’, Şerh-i Divan-i Aliyyü’l-Murtada Kerremallahü Vecheh, Zeyl-i Nabi, Kitabu’l-Hitab, Haliliyye-i İsmail Hakkı Kuddise Sırruh, History İskender b.Filpos, Mahadar, Tezkiretü'l-Hikem fi Tabakati'l-Ümem, Tibyan-ı Nafi' der Tercüme-i Burhan-ı Katı', Divan-ı İzzet, Divan-ı Şeyh Galib, Divan-ı Sürûrî, Hamse-i Nergisî and Haşiye Ale’l-Hüseyniyye. (Fig.
11)
Figure 11: Examples of central medallion without pendants: Divan-ı İzzet, Divan-ı Şeyh Galib, History İskender b. Filpos.
The books in which central medallion is seen with pendants are; Fususu’l-Hikem Commentary and Translation, Ahlâk-ı Alaî, Rifaa Bey Travelogue Translation and Dürretü’t-Tac fî Sireti Sahibi’l-Mi’rac.
Besides the central medallion motif, another ornamental element commonly seen on leather bindings is borders. Borders are ornamental elements that go around the binding and mean line.
The borders of the books included in the scope of the study are generally in the form of strips formed by small leaf and flower motifs. In addition to these, it is seen that only leaves or only straight lines are used in the formation of borders. There are also examples where vegetable motifs are intertwined with geometric lines. (Fig. 12)
Figure 12: Examples of border: Tibyan-ı Nafi, Divan-ı Süruri, Haliliyye-i İsmail Hakkı.
In some of the leather bindings, there is no decoration. Şerh-i Baharistan, Fetavay-ı Camiu’l- İcareteyn and Divan-ı Koca Ragıp are books that do not have any ornaments on their binding.
However, the backs of these three books are made of brown leather and are more deformed than their covers. The covers, which are in better condition, are of different colors and do not contain ornaments. This creates the opinion that the original binding of the books in question was repaired and decorated in a later period.
3.2. Decorations Used on Cloth Bindings
Cloth has also found a substantial area of use in binding book covers as an alternative to leather.
Cloth in different colors and different weaving types can be found in the book bindings of this period. However, looking at the examined works, it is noteworthy that some of them have been renewed and even the back part of some fabric bindings is covered with worn leather. It is clear from here that; While renewing the bindings, more fabric material was preferred and since the backs of some leather binding books were in good condition, only the covers were renewed and covered with cloth.
However, there are also examples that are thought to be original and made with care in the decoration sense. The book named History-i Gülşen-i Maarif is one of them. (Fig. 13) In the middle of the binding made of dark green fabric, there is an ornament in the form of a bouquet of flowers and curved leaves. There are two rectangular borders, one of which is smaller,
around this ornament. Again, in these borders, the same curved leaves are circling the binding cover.
Figure 13: The Cloth Binding Cover of History-i Gülşen-i Maarif.
In two examples, floral motifs were placed on the entire cover with the printing technique.
These motifs are larger than the ornaments of other works. One of them is Divan-ı Vehbi, which is bound with brown fabric, and the other is the book called Süleymannâme, which is made with the leather back and corners and the cover is made of blue fabric. (Fig. 14-15)
Figure 14: The Cloth Binding Cover of Divan-ı Vehbi.
Figure 15: The Cloth Binding Cover of Süleymannâme.
3.3. Decorations Used in Marbling Bindings
While marbling is generally used to decorate the inner covers of the books, it was used on the outside of the binding in the books included in the study. Except for two examples, battal marbling is seen on the bindings. Earth tones such as green, dark blue, red and brown were mostly used in marbling, and two colors were used in most of these samples.
The two examples in question are the 3rd and 4th volumes of the mathematics book called Mecmua-i Ulum-i Riyaziye The marbling used in this work is the somaki marbling obtained by making the tide on the battal and sprinkling paint on it again. Back parts of marbling bound books are sometimes covered with leather and sometimes with fabric. (Fig. 16)
Figure 16: Marbling Bindings: Şerhu Salevatı Meşişiyye, Mecmua-i Ulum-i Riyaziye.
3.4. Decorations Used in Cardboard Bindings
As mentioned before, cardboard bindings are obtained by gluing a number of papers on top of each other to provide the desired thickness. It is tried to decorate the binding by adding a colored paper on the binding spine formed in this way.
Among the examined books, there are six books with cardboard bindings. The bindings of the books called History and Fezail-i Jerusalem-i Şerif and Fevâidü'l-Veledeyn do not have any ornaments. However, the bindings of Müzilü'l-Hafa and Divan-ı Sezayi-i Gülşenî were covered with green paper and a central medallion consisting of a combination of geometric and floral motifs was placed in the middle of the cover with gold ink. The edges of the binding cover are bordered using the same ink. (Fig. 17)
Figure 17: Cover Decoration of Münzilü'l-Hafa.
Figure 18: Cover Decoration of Divan-ı Haşim Efendi.
Also, one of the cardboard binding books, Dürr-i Yekta's only top cover is covered with a red colored paper and the middle is decorated with a baklava-shaped motif. However, the nature of the decoration cannot be understood as the book's binding is defaced. The cardboard binding of Divan-ı Haşim Efendi is also blue and all covers are decorated with curved floral motifs.
(Fig. 18)
4. Envelope Flap and Fore-Edge Flap Arrangement and Adornments of Book Bindings
In classical bindings, fore-edge flap is the part added to the end of the lower cover, the part where the envelope flap is attached to the cover. This part not only protects the front of the book, but also enables the envelope flap to move (Özen, 1998). Envelope flap, on the other hand, is the foldable, triangular shaped extension of the last cover of the binding on products belonging to old Turkish and Islamic bookbinding art. It protects the book from dust by turning the binding into a box when folded, and is also used with the intention of pointing to the page where the reader is left off when necessary (Sözen & Tanyeli, 2012).
14 of the examined book bindings have the arrangement of fore-edge flap and envelope flap.
Except for one book, these books have leather bindings. The only non-leather example is Divan-ı Sezayi-i Gülşeni. In this book, which has a cardboard bound, 6-petaled flower motifs painted with gold ink are placed in the fore-edge flap at equal intervals, as 7 pieces. The same motif is found at the tip of the envelope flap. The envelope flap is framed by a band consisting of sliced leaves and flowers, as on the covers of the binding. (Fig. 19)
Figure 19: Fore-edge Flap and Envelope Flap Decoration of Divan-ı Sezayi-i Gülşeni.
Other examples are applied on leather binding. In the remaining 13 books, the envelope flap is surrounded in the same form by the border on the cover of the book. The tip of the envelope flap is left plain in some volumes, while others have a motif, albeit a small one. This motif is sometimes the same as the motif in the middle of the cover, and sometimes it consists of small flower or plant groups placed on the corners of the cover. The envelope flap of Tezkiretü'l- Hikem fi Tabakatü'l-Ümem is decorated with a central medallion motif consisting of a group of plants in the middle of its lid. Semârü'l-esrâr, Ahlak-i Ala-i, Tibyan-i Nafi', History Iskender b. Filpos and Fususu'l-Hikem Commentary and Translation are examples where no decoration was made the envelope flap. In Rifaa Bey Travel Book, the tip of the envelope flap is decorated with the ornaments of fore-edge flap on the cover. In Nevadirü'l-Asar, Divan-ı Şeyh Galib, Marifetname, Kitabu'l-Hitab, Mediyyetü'l-İhvan fî Şerhi Subhati's-Sıbyan and Minhacü'l- Fukara, the tip of the envelope flap is decorated with the same small motifs on the corners of the book cover. (Fig. 20-21)
Figure 20: Envelope Flap Decoration of Divan-ı
Şeyh Galib. Figure 21: Envelope Flap Decoration of Kitabü’l- Hitab.
5. Conclusion
The importance given to knowledge and spreading knowledge has existed in every period.
Until the 15th century, people used to write and reproduce information by hand. Systematic reproduction by printing corresponds to the 15th century. Until the 18th century, although other nations living in the Ottoman lands started to do this work, printing was not done by the Turkish hand.
In the 18th century, the first Turkish printing house was established under the leadership of İbrahim Müteferrika and the business of printing books was officially started. Thanks to the printing press, the books were able to reach large masses of the people and thus, it became much easier to reach information.
Manuscripts were given great importance in the Ottoman period and this situation showed itself in the decoration of the books. Although the same care was desired to be given to the printed books, the same level could not be reached. Still, aesthetic anxiety makes itself felt in the books.
Printed books in the Rare Works Collection of the Marmara University Library and dated between 1830 and 1840 were evaluated in terms of bookbinding within the scope of the study.
A total of 79 books were examined, of which 34 are leather binding, 16 fabric binding, 18 marbling binding and 6 cardboard binding. Since there is no information about the repairs, renewals and other processes that the books went through in the period of about 190 years, it cannot be clarified whether the bindings are original or not. For this reason, we believe that although the majority of the above-mentioned books have not changed, there are book bindings that have lost their originality.
However, based on the available data, it can be said that leather was used more widely as a bookbinding material compared to other materials in that period. The art of marbling was also used to color the bookbinding visually. Marblings have generally taken their place on book covers in the form of battal marbling in two and three colors. Cloth is less common than leather and marbling bindings. In addition, it was observed that the cloth binding books were in better condition than those in the other group. This suggests that the cloth is used more in the renewal process rather than the first bookbinding. In 6 books, the cardboard binding, which is formed by sticking a colored paper on the cardboard that forms the backbone of the book binding, was applied.
Most of the books, which are thought to be original, have more or less ornamental elements.
Especially in the middle of the book covers, there are central medallion with herbal ornaments in different forms. In addition, small claw-like flowers on the corners of the covers have also taken their place as decoration elements, provided that they are not in every book. Borders that go around book covers and sometimes envelope flap have also been one of the details frequently used in bookbinding decoration. While these borders are in the form of plain straight lines in many books, they have become stripes formed by the combination of leaves and flowers in some.
It is possible to include many more details about the ornamental features. However, as a result, people gave importance to books and reading, and they tried to reveal this with the care they showed on book covers. In addition, it can be said that the desire to seek beauty in people has also manifested itself in book bindings.
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