Masculine Identity and Aggressive Behavior among Illegal Motorcycle Riders from Social Learning Theory
Zalmizy Hussin1*, Siti Rohana Ahmad2
1 School of Applied Psychology, Social Work and Policy
2 Kedah State Health Office, Ministry of Health Malaysia
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Accepted: 15 June 2021 | Published: 1 July 2021
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Abstract: This article discusses masculine identity and aggressive behaviour among illegal motorcycle racers from a theoretical perspective. Ironically, an existing masculine identity indirectly ‘recognizes’ presence and helps maintain existence as a group in society. Studies on the relationship of masculine identity with criminal misconduct have also been of concern to many academics. A large number of past researchers have used criminological theory to explain issues related to masculinity and criminal misconduct. This theoretical perspective needs to be clarified to understand the key masculine characteristics meant by illegal motorcyclists such as relationship building, respect, courage, aggression, dominance and willingness to use any form of violence to resolve conflict. Thus, this article discusses the one of criminology theory to explain masculine identity and aggressive behaviour among illegal motorcycle racers in Penang, Malaysia. The discussion of this study focuses on four basic assumptions namely relationship differences, definitions, reinforcement/reinforcement differences and imitation. This article also briefly describes recommendations for future research in the criminological literature. Thus, these masculine identities and aggressive behaviours are learned, acquired, repeated and altered in the social structure as the social learning process takes place. Directly, this theory proves its validity as an explanation of the construction of masculine identity in understanding aggressive thinking and behaviour among illegal motorcycle riders in Malaysia.
Keywords: masculine identity, aggressive behaviour, illegal motorcycle racers, social learning theory, criminology
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1. Introduction
Malaysia as well as other countries in the world generally tend to face problems that involve young people committing crimes and behaving aggressively. If it still fails to be curbed, then it is the burden of the community to ensure that the problem is addressed as best as possible.
The phenomenon of illegal racing is one example of a social phenomenon that involves young people in Malaysia. This activity poses a security threat and risk to society (Mumshad &
Ashraf, 2019). Now, the phenomenon can be seen as a new popular culture among young people that promotes risky behaviours (Vingilis & Smart, 2009). This issue is also increasingly popular as illegal racing videos have been uploaded to YouTube to gain high views, audience comments, customers, audience ‘likes’ and ‘dislikes’ (Mumshad & Ashraf, 2019). Directly, describing to the public about the existence, recognition, and search attention from the community.
Illegal motorcycle racers in this article refer to two main categories, namely motor mats and rempit mats. Mat Motor is defined as “an individual who rides a motorcycle on the road either in a convoy, recklessly or dangerously to provoke a reaction from the spectators”. Meanwhile, Mat Rempit is an “individual or group who participates in illegal racing by riding a motorcycle at risk and is associated with violent crime”. Mat Motor is categorized as ‘clean’ of criminal misconduct and a deep interest in convoy activities alone. However, Mat Motor did not exhibit an aggressive attitude. There are also times when they are just spectators to the ongoing illegal racing activities (Hussin & Ahmad, 2021). They use motorcycles that meet normal standards only to carry out motorcycle convoy activities on the road. In contrast to Mat Rempit using motorcycles that have been modified without following standards, limited safety equipment and riding under the influence of alcohol and drugs (Amit et al., 2016). Racers will usually modify the vehicle at will without following the standards set by the authorities.
The problems of the study focused on the illegal racing activities performed by them not only in the case of illegal racing but also activities related to aggressive behaviour which were generally also perceived as negative. Research on illegal racing activities and aggressive behaviour is linked to the formation of their masculine identities. An existing masculine identity indirectly ‘recognizes’ their presence and it helps maintain their existence as a group in society. These aspects are considered necessary to know in more depth as the phenomenon of illegal racing is considered one of the social problems of adolescents and many efforts are now being intensified to address the problem as best as possible. Therefore, this article discusses the formation of masculine identity (manhood) and aggressive behaviours that exist for the group from a theoretical perspective. The justification for the selection of this theory in the study is because this theory is seen to give a specific picture that the formation of masculine identity and aggressive behaviour in influencing the aggressive thinking and behaviour of illegal motorcycle racers in Malaysia.
2. Literature Review
The development of masculine criminology is less focused than reviews of works in the branch of criminology. Studies on the concept of masculine identity as a tool for understanding men and criminal behaviour are very poorly focused. Therefore, this article discusses the concept of masculinity (manhood) as a tool to expand our understanding of male crime concerning the issue of illegal racing in Malaysia. Studying different theories of criminology is important to understand the causes of criminal misconduct. It is the first step in formulating strategies and treatments to prevent crime to make society safer. Social learning theory is one of the most popular and often used criminological theories in looking at social problems from a theoretical perspective. This theory states that individuals build motivation to commit crimes through the individuals they observe. Directly, new behaviours, values, and attitudes with direct experience are learned by observing the behaviour of others through positive or negative stimuli. Thus, this theory is used only to provide an overview of the problems studied from the point of view of theoretical discussion. Therefore, the justification for the selection of this theory in the study is because this theory is seen to give a specific picture that the role of the environment influences the formation of the masculine identity of illegal motorcycle racers in Malaysia.
The behavioural learning aspect of this theory (as first put forward by Akers and Burgess 1966) is taken from the classic work of BF Skinner. However, Akers (1998) has argued how his theory is closer to the theory of cognitive learning, although it is often associated with another author. Akers (1998) argued that the specific mechanism can affect the learning process in social reality. Also, Akers’ (1998) argument states that voluntary actions performed by an
individual have been influenced by the reward and punishment system. Then, the decision will influence an individual whether to participate in the appropriate behaviour.
This theory can be understood in general as an approach to social behaviour that includes the
“interaction for example cognitive, behavioural and also environmental” of human behaviour (Bandura, 1977: vii). From the perspective of crime studies, social learning theory is commonly used to explain various criminal behaviours. This theory is as proposed by Akers who states
“the same learning process in the context of interaction which can cause aggressive behaviour to be expressed in various forms of situations in social reality (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 85). In the perspective of social learning theory, there are four basic assumptions as follows.
Differential Association
This component discusses different interaction relationships either directly or indirectly. These interactions play an important role in providing the social context in which social learning takes place. A person’s direct interactions with others focus on a particular type of criminal behaviour and exposing the individual to norms, values, and attitudes that support this behaviour influences the decision of whether the individual chooses to participate in a particular behaviour (Akers & Jensen, 2006). Akers and Sellers (2004) argue that family and peers are usually the most prominent primary group for providing exposure to good or bad and appropriate behaviours or vice versa. To a large extent, early childhood learning occurs through family interactions and growing relationships are formed in school, leisure, recreation, and peers while in adolescence. In contrast, during growing up youth and later in family life, couples, workgroups, and friendship groups typically assume primary group status that provides a social context for learning (Jensen, 2003). Secondary groups or references can also indirectly provide context for learning if an individual associate himself or herself with behaviours, norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs with a group of individuals, including neighbours, religious leaders, school teachers, or even what Warr states (2002) referred to as virtual groups, i.e. social networks in mass media, the Internet, and so on.
Based on this theory as well, long-lasting relationships involving close friends or peers have a major impact on an individual’s decision to interpret their behaviours. Through this theory, individuals exposed to criminal, values, and definitions as well as reinforcement patterns will support criminal behaviour (Hwang & Akers, 2003). Individuals exposed to transmitted criminal behaviour through their primary and secondary peer groups are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour (Miller et al. 2008). In this case, too, Akers and Sellers (2004) also explain:
Groups with different associations provide a key social context in which all social learning mechanisms operate. They not only show a person’s definition, but they also present models with models to mimic and differentiate reinforcements (sources, schedules, values, and amounts) for criminal behaviour. (pages: 85-86).
Definitions
This is one's orientation and attitude towards a given behaviour. These personalities, as opposed to definitions of peers and other groups (i.e., differentiated associations), are influenced by the justifications, reasons, and attitudes of individuals who regard the commission of in making a decision or interpreting behaviour in their lives. In this context Akers considers this definition to be expressed in two types: (1) general beliefs and (2) specific beliefs. The common belief is a person’s definition that is grounded in religious, moral, and other conventional values. Whereas, specific beliefs are personal definitions that orient
individuals either toward committing or refraining from committing criminal misconduct (Akers & Sellers 2004).
In addition, the theory also discusses personal definitions as encompassing conventional beliefs and beliefs. Conventional belief is a negative or unfavourable definition for committing criminal acts and deviations or favourable for committing appropriate behaviour. On the other hand, a positive belief is a belief that supports or favours criminal misconduct. Positive belief is an individual-expressed definition that committing a criminal act is morally justified or fully justified (Jensen, 2003).
Differential Reinforcement
Similar to the relationship difference mechanism, where an imbalance of norms, values, and good attitudes will increase a person’s likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour. The imbalance of reinforcement differentiation also increases the likelihood that individuals will perform certain behaviours. Further, rewards and punishments received in the past, present, and future affects the likelihood that a person will participate in criminal behaviour. In this context, the process of reinforcement differentiation takes place in four main modes, namely positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
Positive reinforcement is a behaviour that results in increased status, money, appreciation, or pleasant feelings. On the other hand, negative reinforcement is a repetitive behaviour if the act allows the individual to save himself and escape any punishment. Meanwhile, different positive and negative punishments serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of certain behaviours being repeated (Cullen et al. 2006). Thus, some methods for reinforcing a behaviour are through the offer of rewards that are higher in value and/or larger amounts to increase the likelihood of the behaviour occurring and recurring.
Imitation
Imitation is perhaps the most complex of the four dimensions of Akers' theory of social learning. Imitation occurs when a person performs a behaviour that is used as a role model or a model behaviour that is observed by another individual. An individual can observe the behaviour of a potential model either directly or indirectly. In turn, the characteristics of an observed behaviour will affect the probability of a person imitating that behaviour. This process of imitation is often referred to as representation reinforcement (Bandura, 1990). Although social learning theory states that the process of imitation occurs throughout an individual’s life, Akers argues that imitation is the most prominent action to produce a new behaviour (Akers &
Selllers, 2004). Thus, an individual’s decision to commit a crime after watching a violent television show for the first time or watching his or her peers attack a peer for the first time provides a key social context in which the process of imitation can take place. Even so, this process of imitation affects defending or avoiding a particular behaviour.
3. Discussion and Conclusion
Differential Association - Illegal Motorcycle Racer
The concept of relationship difference has been understood to consist of two important dimensions. The first dimension is that behaviour-interaction can explain aggressive behaviour has been produced through “a direct relationship between interactions with others involved in some type of behaviour; as well as ... indirect relationships by identifying other reference groups in its social environment ”(Akers & Sellers, 2004: 85). Individuals or groups who are in a social relationship, either directly or indirectly are providing a social context within each of the relationships from four different social learning theory assumptions. This is because, in
this social context, individuals are exposed to a variety of definitions that can influence in terms of behaviour, emotions and feelings of acceptable or unacceptable behaviour and those various models of behaviour that can trigger a criminal act.
Individual relationships in social reality are broken down into divided into two relations. First, primary relationships include those with immediate family and friends. In this study, illegal motorcycle racers ’relationships with family and peers strongly influenced their involvement in aggressive behaviour. For example, Mat Motor is vulnerable to the influence of peer pressure to engage in convoy activities. The influence of solicitation from peers has been used as a resource for them to jointly engage in such illegal activities. While the secondary relationships of social learning include much broader relationships such for example, teachers, neighbours, and the community that also influence the formation of their identities. In addition, Mat Rempit's masculine identity is built from the formation of illegal racing groups to perform dangerous actions on the road such as one of Mat Rempit's favourite styles, Aerodynamic Style or Superman that can be seen on the streets in Malaysia.
In addition, the social relationship between Mat Motor and the teachers of the social environment in the school has caused them to feel uncomfortable and fun. This has prompted a handful of them to decide to skip school. Social relationships with teachers in schools have contributed to the attitudes and values illegal motorcycle riders adopt, as well as how their behaviour is interpreted in a variety of other social contexts. Thus, the type of relationship is an important determinant of behaviour, i.e., the greater impact on a person’s (illegal motorcycle racer) behaviour occurs the earlier the relationship is made, the longer the duration of the relationship, the more often the relationship occurs, the closer the relationship (Akers & Sellers, 2004). In this study, from a social learning perspective, it has been shown that the early relationship between illegal motorcyclists and their families is said to play an important role in shaping their behaviour.
Definitions - Illegal Motorcycle Racer
The concept of Definition can be understood as an individual who possesses values, attitudes about behaviour whether it is acceptable or unacceptable. In other words, these concepts according to Akers and Sellers are “those orientations, rationalizations, definitions of circumstances, and other assessments and moral attitudes that determine the behaviour of an act as right or wrong, good or bad and justified or unreasonable” (2004: 86). Attitudes and values are learned and reinforced through the process of relationship differentiation.
This theory explains the relationship between attitudes and values influencing two main definitions. The general definition defined broad beliefs about adherence to behaviours influenced by conventional norms, religious and moral values (Akers & Sellers, 2004).
Meanwhile, the specific definition is seen as people who "a person has adapted to a certain behaviour or series of actions" (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 86). In this study, the definition assumption has been argued the greater the number of definitions in favour of aggressive and criminal behaviour, the greater the illegal motorcycle racers will engage in verbal and physical types of aggressive behaviour. Social learning theory also considers behaviours that are observed to an increasing extent the number of definitions that give preference to conventional norms to curb the involvement of illegal motorcyclists in aggressive or criminal behaviour. In understanding this social learning perspective, a Mat Motor or Mat Rempit person can adopt attitudes and values about certain behaviours. At the same time also, they can construct a masculine identity because of some of the behaviours that have been interpreted.
In this study, the conceptual assumption of definition was viewed as either allowing or neutralizing behaviour. The concept of permissive definition, in general, is a framework of criminal behaviour from a positive angle. While the definition of neutralizing acts to allow or control some or all forms of (aggressive) or criminal behaviour (Akers & Sellers, 2004). Akers and Silverman have argued “cognitive, a definition in favour of aggressive behaviour causes a person’s mind to be more willing to perform an action when the opportunity occurs or is created. Their behaviour influences aggressive behaviour by acting as an internal discriminatory stimulus” (2004: 20).
Differential Reinforcement - Illegal Motorcycle Racer
Reinforcement differences can be generally understood as the process of individuals experiencing and anticipating consequences from their behaviour “whether the individual will abstain from crime at any given time or continue to stop doing so in the future depending on the past, present, and expectations future rewards and punishments for their actions ”(Akers &
Sellers, 2004: 87). Reinforcement of attitudes, beliefs, and values occurs through positive or negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when an action is rewarded through a positive reaction to the behaviour as well as through a positive outcome. Positive reinforcement can increase the likelihood of criminal behaviour through reward. From another angle, it involves the elimination of negative effects or feedback, and this may also increase the likelihood of taking certain actions. For example, Mat Rempit committed illegal racing due to the large rewards offered lucrative prizes. Prizes such as cash, women, drugs are among the rewards that will be received by the winners. This reward prompted the Rempit Mat to maintain a positive reinforcement because the rempits behaviour was judged based on a large reward.
Therefore, they will repeat the behaviour due to the lucrative reward. This reinforcement as referred to by Akers and Sellers as reinforcement occurs and contributes to the repetition of behaviour when the behaviour is given a greater value and the likelihood that the behaviour will be reinforced further is greater (2004: 87).
Imitation - Illegal Motorcycle Racer
Imitation is a notion that individuals engage in behaviours that they have witnessed others commit. The extent to which the behaviour is imitated is determined largely by “model characteristics, observed behaviours, and observed effects of the behaviour” (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 88). Reviews of the work have shown that witnessing an action of another person, on a particular person close to us, can affect participation in both compliant and compliant behaviour (Donnerstein & Linz, 1995). Imitation has also been found to be able to produce a new behaviour because of the imitation performed (Akers & Sellers, 2004: 89).
In this study, masculine identities and aggressive behaviours were imitated from the viewing of films that gave them a stimulus to mimic the actions watched. Masculine identities such as wanting to be a macho man, wanting to prove their masculinity on the road, wanting to be respected and so on are triggered by the imitation of actions in stories aired on electronic media.
As is well known, in Malaysia there are many films about the Mat Rempit phenomenon that are published for profit. These films get box-office or stage-breaking views because teenagers are particularly interested in watching films that feature dangerous and illegal activities. Issuers of these films just contributed to moral decadence, especially adolescents and young Malay Muslims. They do not care about any ill effects that occur because of many teenagers imitating the dangerous actions of Mat Rempit displayed on the silver screen. The makers of these films are only interested in profit without thinking about the risks or adverse effects of their films.
Illegal motorcycle racers either Mat Motor or Mat Rempit imitate masculine actions from several films and songs (Hussin, 2017).
Future
The future of this theory in the field of criminology lies in two paths to the future:
1) First: this theory will continue to be used by researchers to test social learning more deeply and more accurately at the micro or process level (i.e., at the level of
difference across individuals), including measurement of variables from a
criminological theory point of view. Future studies will also use better measures and these future studies should continue to include more research on social explanations of the most serious and violent criminal behaviours as well as an online crime (call fraud crimes, scammers) and corporate crime / professionally committed by a full individual the time involved with the crime of his or her career.
2) Second: the principles of social learning will continue to be used in behavioural- cognitive programs. According to Cullen, Wright, Gendreau, & Andrews (2003) suggest this theory is done to achieve the effectiveness of a program of prevention, treatment, and also rehabilitation. So far, there are still many unanswered questions about the feasibility and effectiveness of designed programs when applying social learning theory in research.
Thus, future research is proposed to conduct Longitudinal shaped studies and cross-cultural studies on the empirical validity of this theory in different societies. This theory is also needed for the explanation and control of criminal misconduct not only in a society in Malaysia but also in society around the world. Several past studies support social learning theory (see, e.g., Hwang & Akers, 2003; Miller, Jennings, Alvarez-Rivera, & Miller, 2008). Future studies applying social learning theory need to look at different societal contexts, relevant issues and topics and target group variations to determine the influence of social learning variables in different social realities.
Conclusion
The masculine identity in an illegal motorcycle racer has to do with the masculine traits of a man such as a smoker, dashing, strong, brave, wanting to be respected, wanting recognition and aggressive. These traits ultimately influence thoughts and actions whether in the form of verbal or physically aggressive behaviour. Understanding the issue of identity formation and aggressive behaviour through a theoretical perspective would like to explain how the social environment can shape identity and influence criminal behaviour. The application of this theory is expected to explain criminal misconduct in the context of type, time, place, and context of social reality. Thus, if past behaviour is the best predictor for future behaviour, then the authors expect that social learning theory will continue to show appropriateness in these multiple dimensions as a macro explanation of the level of index crime that occurs. Nevertheless, this article is indeed open to discussion. No theory can explain all the variations of criminal behaviour. Only through a dynamic process and rigorous and strong empirical testing in criminology can it be determined how many theories can explain the causes of society engaging in crime.
Financing
The author received financial support from a College Grant entitled “Masculine Identity and Aggressive Behavior among Illegal Motorcyclists in the Northern States of Peninsular Malaysia” (SO Code: 14825) for research, authoring and publication of this article.
Acknowledgement
This study was funded by the College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia.
(College Grant: SO Code: 14825).
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