Subjects who had and did not change breastfeeding practices after delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic. To examine the relationship between perceived effects of the COVID-19 lockdown and changes in breastfeeding practices. iv).
Breastfeeding
Composition of Human Breast Milk
Meanwhile, colostrum is rich in protein and relatively rich in immunological components such as secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) and lactoferrin (Kulski and Hartmann, 1981; Kim and Yi, 2020). These bioactive compounds could elicit their functions on various body systems, such as the cardiovascular, immune, endocrine, and nervous systems (Watanabe, 2012; Ballard and Morrow, 2013; Shelby et al., 2019).
Benefits of Breastfeeding
Apart from the benefits for babies, breastfeeding is believed to improve the mother's health in the short term and reduce the risk of developing diseases. Moreover, exclusive breastfeeding has been shown to reduce the risk of maternal health complications associated with short birth intervals by delaying ovulation after delivery (Godfrey and Lawrence, 2010).
Prevalence of Breastfeeding Practices
9 It has been reported that the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding for children under six months was highest in South Asia and lowest in North America at 57% and 26%, respectively. The prevalence of continued breastfeeding among children aged 20 – 24 months was reported to be 39.4% (Institute of Public Health, Ministry of Health, Malaysia, 2016).
Factors Influencing Breastfeeding Practices
Group-Level Factors
This is consistent with study by Hinsliff-Smith et al. 2014), who reported that mothers are embarrassed to be stared at by surrounding people when breastfeeding. Apart from the public institutions, Hinslif-Smith et al. 2014) report that mothers will also feel ashamed to breastfeed at home if they stay with other family members.
Society-Level Factors
This is consistent with the findings of Thet et al. 2016), which revealed a shorter duration of breastfeeding among mothers with low family income. However, findings by Barennes et al. 2012) showed that the tendency to stop exclusive breastfeeding increases with the family's income level.
Epidemiology of COVID-19 in Malaysia
Consistent with findings from Whalen and Cramton (2010), Moraes de Oliveira and Camelo (2017) reported that first-time mothers have a lower tendency to exclusively breastfeed compared to mothers with more children. In another study, multiparous mothers were shown to be more confident in exclusive breastfeeding due to their previous successful experiences and beneficial effects of breastfeeding (Mundagowa et al., 2019).
Movement Control Orders (MCOs) in Malaysia
With the downward trend of COVID-19 cases, restrictions were eased with the implementation of the Conditional Movement Control Order (CMCO) on 4 May 2020 (Jayaraj et al., 2021). Restrictions were then further lifted in the recovery movement control order (RMCO) on 9 June 2020, in which most activities were allowed by adhering to SOPs (Jayaraj et al., 2021). However, restrictions were intensified again in CMCO on October 7, 2020 due to increased cases.
Meanwhile, the CMCO, RMCO and enhanced MCO (EMCO) have been placed in the other states based on the severity of COVID-19 situation until the enforcement of full MCO (FMCO) throughout Malaysia on 1 June 2021 (Jayaraj et al., 2021 ) ).
Impacts of COVID-19 Lockdown on Breastfeeding Practices
In the United Kingdom (UK), data collected by Vazquez-Vazquez et al. 2021) between May 27 and June 3, 2020, found that only 13% of mothers who gave birth before and during the lockdown reported changes in feeding practices for infants aged 0–12 months due to the lockdown. However, 10% and 15% reductions were found in feeding frequency and duration, respectively (Vazquez-Vazquez et al., 2021). Contrary to previous findings in Italy and the UK, a cross-sectional study by Piankusol et al.
Infant feeding methods during the first six months of infancy and changes in actual feeding practices according to feeding intention were significantly associated with periods of labor that were before and during confinement.
Impacts of COVID-19 lockdown on Breastfeeding Support
Collectively, these studies highlighted that the changes in breastfeeding practices were inconsistent between different countries and could even be influenced by the study periods. In addition, both Brown and Shenker (2021) and Vazquez-Vazquez et al. 2021) reported that mothers were concerned about insufficient breast milk, painful and latching problems due to inadequate breastfeeding support during lockdown in the United Kingdom. Furthermore, the complications caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, including family stress due to childbirth, household pressure during confinement and activity restrictions, were found not to be relevant to the breastfeeding practices in Thailand (Piankusol et al., 2021).
The inconsistent results between the studies can be explained by the variation in social awareness and mass communication associated with the COVID-19 issues between these countries (Piankusol et al., 2021).
Ethical Consideration and Informed Consent
Study Design
Questionnaire Design
Section A: Demographic Profile
27 who were currently infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), tuberculosis, or had lesions caused by herpes simplex virus on both breasts, as well as babies diagnosed with galactosemia, were not eligible for this study (Latorre et al., 2021). Section B has closed questions to investigate whether the mothers have changed their diet plan and how they have changed breastfeeding practices due to the pandemic. The questions about the feeding intention before birth, the actual feeding practices in the first six months of the infant's age, as well as whether they have reduced the frequency of breastfeeding and stopped breastfeeding due to the pandemic.
Section C: Perceived Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown
Section D: Perception towards Possible Reasons for Changing Breastfeeding Practices
29 positive for COVID-19 infection, exhaustion or stress, problem latching or pain, insufficient milk, embarrassment, partner not supportive, family not supportive, and work responsibility.
Sampling Method
30 in sharing the questionnaire with the other eligible subjects was also included in the final part of the study once the subjects had completed the questionnaire.
Sample Size
Statistical Analysis
Categorical data, including ordinal and nominal data, on demographic characteristics and infant feeding practices and changes were presented in percentage frequency distributions. Next, Fisher's exact test was performed to examine the association of infant feeding practices and changes with birth periods. In addition, associations between changes in breastfeeding practices and three aspects that included demographic characteristics, perceived effects of the COVID-19 lockdown, and perception towards possible reasons for changing breastfeeding practices were also investigated using the t test. Fisher's exact (Kim, 2017).
Total Number of Eligible Subjects
Demographic Characteristics
40 4.5 Comparison of demographic characteristics between persons who changed and did not change breastfeeding practices after childbirth during the COVID-19 pandemic. 41 Table 4.4: Comparison of demographic characteristics between persons who changed and did not change breastfeeding practices after childbirth during the COVID-19 pandemic. 42 Table 4.4 (continued): Comparison of demographic characteristics between persons who changed and did not change breastfeeding practices after delivery during the COVID-19 pandemic.
44 Table 4.5: Observed effects of covid-19 containment on subjects who changed and did not change breastfeeding practices after birth during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Infant Feeding Practices and Changes in Breastfeeding Practices during the COVID-19 Pandemic
In addition, changes in actual breastfeeding practices relative to initial feeding intention indicated a strong tendency (p = 0.051) to be related to labor periods. However, there was no association (p > 0.05) between breastfeeding practices during the first six months of postpartum infants and the delivery periods in this study. In the current study, mothers who gave birth after the MCO period (34.6%) were slightly more likely to change their breastfeeding practices compared to.
Consequently, the restrictive measures may allow mothers to spend more time at home, making them less likely to change their breastfeeding practices (Yu et al., 2022).
Association between Demographic Characteristics and Changes in Breastfeeding Practices during the COVID-19 Pandemic
This may be because the mothers' decision about breastfeeding practices was not affected before the first MCO. As a result of the transformation of MCOs into NRP, mothers would find it difficult to adapt to the recovery of most economic activities and therefore changed their breastfeeding practices from the feeding intention (Mahbob, 2021). 51 Furthermore, mothers with only one child tended to change their breastfeeding practices from the initial feeding intention as observed in this study.
Meanwhile, the present findings also contradict the findings of Shohaimi et al. 2022) in Malaysia, which showed that breastfeeding practices were strongly associated with ethnicity.
Association between Perceived Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown and Changes in Breastfeeding Practices during the COVID-19
In addition, the majority of Malaysian mothers who did or did not change their breastfeeding practices reported never or rarely receiving infant feeding support from health personnel during the COVID-19 lockdown. In addition, the frequency of contact with mother-to-mother breastfeeding support groups during the lockdown ranged from "never" to "usually" and did not show much difference between mothers who changed or did not change their breastfeeding practices in this study. Online social support groups are being established, such as mother-to-mother breastfeeding support groups, to provide mothers with information, esteem and emotional support (Wagg et al., 2019).
Support groups are platforms for mothers to interact and share experiences with each other (Neal, 2013).
Association between Perception towards Possible Reasons of Changing Breastfeeding Practices and Changes in Breastfeeding
Current milk supply should also be examined through more reliable parameters such as wet diaper frequencies, infant alertness, infant growth and weight gain (Kent et al., 2021). Perceptions of breastfeeding discomfort vary across religions, cultures and geographic locations (Komodiki et al., 2014). Some mothers felt that breastfeeding was a natural part of being a mother, but others struggled to do so in public as they worried about social disapproval due to the sexualization of breasts (Grant, 2016; Zhao et al., 2018). .
In some cases, although mothers believed that others would understand and support their breastfeeding effort, they still felt ashamed to practice breastfeeding in front of others, especially among male friends or colleagues (Ismail et al., 2012).
Limitations of Study and Future Work
Therefore, the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding during the COVID-19 pandemic could not be predicted in this study and compared to the prevalence before the pandemic. The current results can be used as a reference by the Ministry of Health (Malaysia) in efforts to restore the reduction of exclusive breastfeeding caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Determinants of exclusive breastfeeding among mothers of infants aged 6 to 12 months in Gwanda District, Zimbabwe.
Breastfeeding intention and practice among expectant mothers in Malaysia and factors associated with exclusive breastfeeding practice: A cohort study. Barriers to exclusive breastfeeding in the Ayeyarwady region of Myanmar: qualitative findings from mothers, grandmothers and husbands. Determinants of discontinuation of exclusive breastfeeding in Ankesha Guagusa Woreda, Awi Zone, Northwest Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study.
