International Journal of Social Science Research (IJSSR) eISSN: 2710-6276 | Vol. 5 No. 1 [March 2023]
Journal website: http://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/ijssr
USE OF SELF-REPAIR STRATEGIES IN JOB INTERVIEWS: ROLE OF CLT APPROACH IN L2
LEARNING
Suryani Awang1*, Normah Abdullah2, Siti Shazlin Razak3, Wan Nuur Fazliza Wan Zakaria4 and Wan Nurhafiza Fatini Wan Hassan5
1 3 4 Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Machang, MALAYSIA
2 5 Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, MALAYSIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Article Information:
Article history:
Received date : 31 October 2022 Revised date : 12 December 2022 Accepted date : 27 December 2022 Published date : 7 March 2023
To cite this document:
Awang, S., Abdullah, N., Razak, S. S., Wan Zakaria, W. N. F., & Wan Hassan, W. N. F. (2023).USE OF SELF-REPAIR STRATEGIES IN JOB INTERVIEWS: ROLE OF CLT APPROACH IN L2 LEARNING.
International Journal of Social Science Research, 5(1), 185-196.
Abstract: Being able to communicate competently is highly expected in high-stake interactions including job interviews. In Malaysian context where English is used widely, many employers reported that Malaysian graduates lack competency in using their language and were unable to comprehend even the most basic interview questions. This scenario contradicts what is expected of when one is trained using Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach in L2 learning.
Being adopted in the teaching of English in Malaysian schools about four decades ago, CLT approach should produce competent English speakers in Malaysia. The approach also exposes them to the use of communication strategies (CS) to overcome any problems in oral communication. To examine the extent to which CS is being employed by ESL speakers in this country, the current study was set to examine the use of self-repair strategies among candidates of a real communicative context; job interviews. This strategy was chosen as it reflects the speakers’ effort and English language competency level when being used in real oral L2 interactions. The data were collected through observations made on 19 candidates of academic staff recruitment interviews. The analysis process started with identifying the occurrences of self- repair strategies based in Dörnyei and Scott's taxonomy of CS ) before they were categorised according to Schegloff et al.’s self-repair framework.
The results showed that ‘replacing’ was the most frequently used repair-strategy followed by ‘inserting’,
‘aborting’ and ‘deleting’. While replacing and deleting were reported to be common in other past studies,
1. Introduction
Communicating in high-stake interactional contexts such as job interviews is a nerve- wrecking experience to many. While demonstrating good communication skills is a plus point for interview candidates, an inability to do so may result in failure to secure the applied positions (Ting et al. 2017).
Being defined as an individual’s ability to communicate with others effectively (Krishan et al., 2017), “communication skills” is the term commonly highlighted by potential employers as an important criterion of evaluation in job recruitment interviews. In relation to this, Krishnan et al. (2017) who studied graduates’ communication skills for employment reported that, a majority of recent graduates lacked clarity, completeness, conciseness, and correctness in their communication.
In terms of language use, Azita Ali and Hazlina Marwan (2019) and Ilhaamie Abdul Ghani Azmi et al. (2018) highlighted the importance of graduates’ English oral communicative competence and communication skills during interview sessions. Unfortunately, communicating in English is seen as a big challenge to many non-native English speakers.
While this is a common scenario among non-native English countries, Malaysia, in which English holds the position of a second language (L2) is no exception.
A review on past studies showed that L2 speakers handled their lack of L2 linguistic knowledge by employing what was termed by Selinker (1972) as a “strategy of communication”. Originally, this notion concerned with the linguistic aspects of the psychology of second language learning. The term was later revised and known to more recent scholars as “communication strategies” (CS). Examples of CS include message abandonment, code-switching (into first language), asking for clarifications, use of fillers to fill in communication gap and making repairs to one’s own speech, known as “self-repair”.
By focusing on CS, the current study is significant in the following ways. First, the use of CS in oral communication directly relates to the adoption of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach which emphasizes on the conveyance of message in the target language. In doing this, L2 learners are expected to employ various strategies to ensure that their intended messages are delivered. When L2 speakers stumble at any points of their oral aborting appeared as relatively high in the current study as compared to other studies. Meanwhile, deleting appeared as the least utilised repair strategy. This brings to the suggestions on how CLT approach could be implemented to address the issue of L2 learners’
difficulty to function in the target language in a real communicative context.
Keywords: communication strategies, CLT approach, L2 speakers, job interviews, oral communication, self- repair strategies.
Second, the findings on the types of self-repair employed as CS would allow the researchers to make suggestions on how CLT approach could be implemented in order to produce more competent L2 speakers.
1.1 Objectives of the Study
Considering the above, the current study was set to achieve the following objectives:
1. To examine the extent to which self-repair strategies were used in a real communication context.
2. To examine the types of self-repair strategies used as communication strategies by candidates of real academic staff recruitment interviews.
3. To make suggestion(s) on how CLT approach could be implemented for smoother conveyance of messages among L2 speakers.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Role of English Language in Malaysia
While Bahasa Melayu is recognized as a national language of Malaysia, English is also an important language and used widely in the country. The language was first brought to Malaysia during the British occupation in the nineteenth century. Since then, English was made as a medium of instruction at schools set up by the British in the country. This lasted for years and continued for about a decade after then Federation of Malaya gained its independence from Britain although at that time the Malay language (Bahasa Melayu) had already been proclaimed as the national language. The English language once served as an official language but when ‘Bahasa Melayu’ was strengthened as the national language, the English language took the position as a second language (L2) although it remained as an important language particularly in commercial and trades.
Like other parts of the world, the teaching and learning of L2 has always been a great concern and Malaysia is no exception. English language teaching (ELT) in this country started with structural-situational method before communicative approach took over in early 1980s with the introduction of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). This approach which influenced L2 teaching worldwide was adopted gradually in Malaysian schools in early 1980s starting from form six before it was fully adopted at all school levels years later.
In line with this development was the use of the Integrated English Language Syllabus for Primary School (KBSR) by the Malaysian government in 1982 (Farah & Mahani, 2022) which utilised communicative language education (Abu Bakar et al., 2021). Apparently, this approach served the purpose of ELT teaching in Malaysian schools well that it was retained in the system despite a few revamps that took place in the Malaysian school curriculum at primary school level. The first revamp was made in 1994 when the New Primary School Curriculum was replaced by Integrated Primary School Curriculum. The latter however, was revised in 2003 and continued in Malaysian school curriculum before it was replaced by the Curriculum Standards for Primary Schools in 2011 which was designed to support the government’s important education agenda; Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025.
2.2 CLT Approach in English Language Teaching
On preparing L2 learners to function well in real communicative contexts, L2 teaching and learning should aim at enhancing their communicative competence. If ideally conducted, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) should meet this purpose since this teaching approach takes L2 learners’ communicative competence as its ultimate goal (Nunan, 2000).
Rooted from the notion “communicative competence” introduced by Hymes (1972), this teaching approach received worldwide popularity in the early 1980s and has been widely adopted in second or foreign language teaching (Teh, 2021) including Malaysia.
Being a meaning-focused instruction, CLT approach focuses on providing meaningful contexts and assisting learners to comprehend utterances based on the contexts of interactions.
L2 learners are then expected to be able to express their intended messages. In oral communication, this is facilitated by the use of communication strategies (CS) which was referred to by Dörnyei & Scott (1997, 179) as “every potentially intentional attempt to cope with any-language problems of which the speaker is aware during communication”. This is also the definition of CS adopted in the current study.
2.3 Communication Strategies
The notion “communication strategies” was firstly introduced in 1970s and became popular among many scholars who later proposed their perspectives on CS. These include Bialystok (1983); Clennel (1995); Dörnyei and Scott (1997), Faerch and Kasper (1983); Poulisse (1993) and Tarone (1981). Some took differing perspectives such as Faerch and Kasper (1993) who proposed the psychological perspective of CS while Tarone (1981) was an advocator of interactional perspective of CS. Among them all, Dörnyei and Scott's CS taxonomy (1997) could be considered comprehensive because it is constrained neither from psycholinguistic nor interactional perspectives of CS. It is also relevant in the current study which involves real oral interactions between interview candidates and the panelists.
In their CS taxonomy, Dörnyei and Scott (1997) categorized the types of CS into three (3) main categories namely direct strategies, interactional strategies and indirect strategies. While direct strategies are used to tackle language-based problems by providing alternatives to compensate for language gap, interactional strategies involve cooperation among interlocutors to carry out troubleshooting exchanges so that they could reach mutual understanding and hence, are able to interact successfully. Unlike these two strategies, indirect strategies are employed not because of communication problems but to help the speakers to successful get the intended messages across by keeping the interaction channel open to reach mutual understanding. “Self-repair” which becomes the focus of the current study falls under direct strategies and is one of Own Performance Problem-Related Strategies.
2.4 Self-Repair as a Communication Strategy
As mentioned earlier, the focus of the current study was self-repair strategies which was defined by Dörnyei and Scott's CS taxonomy (1997) as making self-initiated corrections in one’s own speech. While many researchers and scholars have dealt with the theory of repair, Schegloff et al. (1977) contributed significantly in this research area. Although ‘self-repair’
might be termed differently by different scholars, the basic concept of it boils down to the idea that the corrections were done without others’ interventions (Schegloff et al., 1977).
According to Schegloff (2000), repair was a practice ‘for dealing with problems or troubles in speaking, hearing, and understanding the talk in conversations. Similarly, referring to self- repair, van Hest (1998) as cited in Wang (2002) asserted that ‘if the speakers’ monitoring device meets with a troublesome item, speakers can decide to correct this item on their own initiative, without interventions from their interlocutors’. Based on these two definitions,
“self-repair” strategy in the current study was defined as ‘efforts made by L2 speakers to make corrections to their own problematic utterances without interventions from others’.
Following Schegloff’s (1977) perspective, there are four (4) categories of repairs based on who has initiated the repairs and who has taken steps to resolve them. These are self-initiated self-repair (SISR), other-initiated self-repair (OISR), self-initiated other-repair (SIOR) and other-initiated other -repair (OIOR). For the purpose of this study, the focus was on Schegloff’s notion of SISR (1977) which definition is in line with Dörnyei and Scott's (1997) definition of self-repair. The term used to represent this notion is ‘self-repair’ which would be used interchangeably with the term ‘self-repair strategies’.
Elaborating further on his concept of repair, Schegloff et al. (1977) categorized self-repair into four (4) categories namely ‘replacing’, ‘inserting’, ‘deleting’ and ‘aborting’. ‘Replacing’, possibly the most common types of self-repair in English and some other languages (Emrani
& Hooshmand (2019), involved substitution for a wholly or partially articulated element while maintaining the original message in the initial utterance (Emrani & Hooshmand (2019).
Meanwhile, from Emrani & Hooshmand’s (2019) point of view, ‘inserting’ referred to the act of adding one or more elements in his/her utterance while ‘deleting’ referred to omitting an element that does not serve the speaker in his/her interactions. Finally, ‘aborting’ was the act of abandoning an original message followed by another effort in order to obtain the same result with possibly a pause before proceeding with the next utterance (Emrani & Hooshmand, 2019). In analysing the occurrences of self-repairs in the current study, these definitions were used to refer to the four (4) categories of ‘self-repair’.
2.5 Past Studies on Self-Repair
A review of past literature shows that self-repair strategies have been widely researched.
Among the frequently referred framework was the one proposed by Schegloff et al. (1977), They categorized repairs into four categories namely SISR, OISR, SIOR and OIOR as stated earlier.
Using Schegloff et al.’s four categories of repair framework, Novitasari & Imperiani (2020) investigated the types of repair strategies and techniques of repair initiation used by Indonesian elementary EFL students during classroom interactions with their teacher. The video-recorded interactions were transcribed before the identified repairs were categorized accordingly. The results showed that OISR appeared most frequently with the total of 23 occurrences (37.1%), followed by SIOR with 24 occurrences (31.2%), SISR with 15
occurrences (24.2%) and OIOR with 16 occurrences (20.8%).
Despite being ranked third in most frequently employed types of repairs in Novitasari &
Imperiani’s (2020) study, self-initiated self-repair (SISR) was actually a research attraction to many, most possibly because it did not involve intervention from the interlocutors. Emrani &
Hooshmand (2019) for instance, studied self-initiated self- repairs (SISR) (termed as ‘self- repair’ or ‘self-repair strategies’ in the current study) earlier than the study by Novitasari &
Imperiani’s (2020). They investigated how self-repair was practised by 40 proficient speakers of English as a foreign language in three different language institutes in Isfahan, Iran. The data obtained from videotaped classroom interactions were analysed and categorized into the subcategories of self-repair. The results showed that the students’ use of self-repair was dominated by ‘replacing’ (59.37%), followed by ‘inserting’ (21.87%), ‘deleting’ (12.5%) and
‘aborting’ (6.25%).
Motivated by Emrani & Hooshmand’s study (2019), the current study aimed to examine the use of repairs in oral interactions among ESL speakers in Malaysia. The current study however, deviated from Emrani & Hooshmand (2019) since the former was contextualized in real interview settings. By observing the use of self-repair in real communicative situations, it is hoped that the findings would shed light on how effective ELT teaching has been in Malaysia, and subsequently, would lead to suggestions on what CLT approach should focus on in this country.
2.6 Problem Statement
Despite the need for interview candidates to demonstrate their competency in communicating in English during interviews (Azita Ali and Hazlina Marwan, 2019; Ilhaamie Abdul Ghani Azmi et al., 2018) many potential employers reported that the former did not only lack clarity, completeness, conciseness, and correctness in their communication, but also failed to impress employers because they were unable to comprehend even the most basic interview questions.
(Krishnan et al., 2017). In fact, answering interview questions in English was perceived challenging to them (Yusof & Mohamad, 2018).
This scenario contradicts what is expected of when one is trained using CLT approach in L2 learning. Being adopted in the teaching of English in Malaysian schools about four decades ago, CLT approach should produce competent English speakers in Malaysia. The approach also exposes them to the use of communication strategies (CS) to overcome any problems in oral communication. Among all types of CS stated by Dörnyei and Scott (1997), self-repair became the focus of the current study since the use of such strategy could reflect the speakers’
effort and competency level when communicating in real oral L2 communication. More specifically, the study aimed to examine the extent to which self-repair strategies were employed by candidates of real academic staff recruitment interviews and the categories of repairs. While the findings of this research would indicate their types of efforts (replacing, inserting, deleting or aborting) in repairing their initial utterances, they also would shed light on how the ESL speakers could be helped to become more competent L2 speakers.
3. Method
This qualitative study aimed to examine the categories of self-repairs in utterances made by the candidates of real academic staff recruitment interviews at one public university in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The interviews were conducted to make selections for permanent and part time lecturers for three faculties namely the Faculty of Art and Design (FSSR), the Faculty of Information Management (IM), and the Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies (ACIS). Since the recruitment was made during Covid-19 pandemic, the interviews were conducted physically and online by taking into considerations the convenience of the candidates and the campus.
The research data were collected through observations made on oral interactions between candidates and interviewers of the earlier mentioned interviews. The sessions were video recorded to help the researchers identify the occurrences of self-repair strategies among the candidates during their interactions with the panelists. Upon identifying such strategies, they were categorized according to their types before comparisons were made based on the frequency count and percentages of such occurrences. Since making repairs showed the speakers’ effort to produce their best utterances, the results obtained from this study would give insights on the candidates’ ability when communicating in the English language. Since they were the products of CLT approach, the results led to suggestions on how CLT approach could be made more effective in producing competent L2 speakers.
3.1 Materials
In preparing for data collection, the recording equipment and technical help were obtained from the campus. Only one researcher was allowed to observe the interactions and monitor the video recordings of the interviews so as not to interfere the interview process.
3.1.1 Samples
Using convenience sampling, the data collection in this study started when the campus commenced the recruitment interviews for three faculties namely the Faculty of Art and Design (FSSR), the Faculty of Information Management (IM), and the Academy of Contemporary Islamic Studies (ACIS). 19 candidates involved in the interviews were considered the products of CLT approach since they used to receive formal education in Malaysian schools in which CLT approach was adopted in the teaching of English. The results from these 19 candidates however, could not be generalized to the whole population of candidates attending academic staff recruitment interviews at UiTM. This is because they were limited to the selections at UiTM Cawangan Kelantan only. It is also important to note here that the current study focused only on the candidates’ use of self-repair and not the panelists’, since it was the candidates’ performances to function in the English language that matter to the researchers.
3.1.2 Site
This study was conducted at one public university in the east coast of peninsular Malaysia where most researchers were working as academic staff. Having to deal with people whom they knew earlier made the data collection process convenient to the researchers. Meanwhile, academic staff recruitment interviews observed in this study was a real communication context in which the candidates would do their best communicating in English, hence, offering the researchers with the kind of data that presented the speakers’ real competency in using the English language.
3.1.3 Procedures
This exploratory qualitative study sought to examine the extent to which self-repair strategies were employed by interview candidates at the point when they encountered difficulties in conveying their intended messages. Additionally, the study also intended to examine the types of self-repair employed by the candidates.
The data were collected through observations made on the interactions between the candidates and the panelists in three different interview sessions, following the schedule for each faculty.
Prior to this, approvals to observe and record the interview sessions were obtained from the university Research Ethics Committee and the campus Rector of UiTM Kelantan. Following this, arrangements were made with the campus Assistant Registrar to enable observations be made on the interview sessions and to have the sessions recorded on videos to facilitate the researchers in analysing of data later on. Only one researcher was responsible to perform non- participant observations so as to prevent any interruptions in the sessions and to avoid any elements of bias in the data. In total, there were eight video recordings capturing a total of 19 candidates with various number of them in each video.
With the help of Nvivo software (version 12), the videos were viewed to identify the occurrences of self-repair strategies before utterances that contained these strategies were transcribed accordingly. Next, they were classified based in Schegloff et al.’s (1977) categorizations namely replacing, inserting, deleting and aborting. Comparisons were then made between these subcategories in terms of frequency count and percentages.
3.2 Measurement
For presentation of results, frequency count was made for each type of self-repair strategy that occurred among the interview candidates. From the total number of the identified strategies, the researchers calculated the percentage amount for each type of self-repair to allow comparisons be made on the occurrences of different types of self-repair strategies namely replacing, inserting, deleting and aborting.
3.3 Data Analysis
As stated earlier, one researcher was present at the venue but that was more to observe how the interviews were conducted and to take note of any incidences that video recordings might not be able to capture. It should also be noted that it was hard for the researcher to fully focus on candidates’ use of self-repair when interviews were in progress. Considering this, the interview sessions were then video-recorded to facilitate the researchers in their data analysis.
The data analysis started by importing the video recordings into the NVivo software (version 12) before they were viewed by the researchers to identify the occurrences of self-repair among the interview candidates. The identification of self-repair was made based on Dörnyei and Scott's (1997) definition of self-repair. From the eight videos observed, 48 occurrences of self-repair were recorded. They were then categorized according to Schegloff et al.’s (1977) four categories of self-repair namely replacing, inserting, deleting and aborting before the oral data containing these strategies were transcribed.
3.3.1 Validity and Reliability
The results obtained were then verified by two inter-raters so that there was no issue of bias in researchers’ data interpretation and hence, ensure the validity of the research findings.
According to Liao & Chen (2010), having two inter-raters was considered sufficient for this qualitative study. While the validity of the research findings was enhanced by verifications made by inter-raters, the issue of reliability of research findings was addressed by the use of NVivo software (version 12) which allowed the researcher to manage the categorizations of self-repair fillers more systematically.
4. Results and Discussion
In total, there were 48 occurrences of self-repair in the current study. The frequency count and percentages according to their categorizations are given in Table 1.
Table 1: The Categorizations of Self-Repairs and Their Frequency Count Categories of Self-Repair Strategies Frequency Percentage (%)
Replacing 29 60.42
Inserting 9 18.75
Deleting 3 6.25
Aborting 7 14.58
TOTAL 48 100.00
Table 1 illustrates the detailed frequency of self-repairs according to their categorizations.
Out of 48 occurrences of self-repairs, 29 or 60.42% came in the form of replacing. This finding was consistent with Emrani & Hooshmand’s (2019) study which reported that among all the subcategories of self-repair, replacing occurred in the highest percentage of 59.37%. Similarly, inserting which appeared as a second most frequently employed self- repair (18.75%) in the current study was also reported as the second most frequent self- repair in Emrani & Hooshmand’s (2019) study which is 21.87%. The other two categories however, were in reversed order in these two studies. The current study showed that aborting was the third frequently employed self-repair with 14.58% followed by deleting with only 6.25%. In contrast, Emrani & Hooshmand’s (2019) study reported that deleting was the third most frequently used self-repair (12.5%) while the least used self-repair was aborting (6.25%).
To illustrate the use of self-repair among the candidates, Table 2 represents some utterances taken from the data according to the subcategories of self-repair. The abbreviation ‘C’ in the table is used to represent the word ‘candidate’. Therefore, C1 indicated in Table 2 represents ‘Candidate 1’.
Table 2: Samples of Utterances According to Subcategories of Self-Repairs Categories of Self-
Repair
Samples of Utterances
Replacing C1: But, besides teaching, aaa I'm currently... I'm aaa...like to share a knowledge with students to encourage them aaa to involve in aaa international exhibition
C5: So, around one and half year, where that I go aaa...travel to Sarawak, to give...to share my knowledge
C4: So usually, by the earliest semester, the earl...emm...by the earliest start of semester for the first three weeks
C5: I have aaa...also have two grants with the Selangor state aaa...which is the MBI
C1: I'm already encouraged my students which is aaa to takes subject of illustration which is aaa on that time we already not aaa they not yet taking subject for...subject digital of illustration
C3: Err...I have before this err...I have a five year industrial experience
C3: For example, aaa...I'm teaching a digital illustration but i know its hard for me to teaching my students without...with...with...we don't facing them
C5: That grant we...I have ten thou...10K for each grant so that I...I think that was a the I can bring that to the...aaa...the "ni" lah expand for the future later
Inserting
Deleting
Aborting
As seen in Table 2, the samples of self-repairs made by the candidates in ‘replacing’ and
‘inserting’ did not indicate much worrying phenomena with regard to their use of English language. This is because their repaired utterances merely reflected the candidates’
preference when restructuring their sentences while the conveyance of the original messages was still maintained.
In contrast, incidences involving ‘aborting’ might suggest a more serious phenomena since they clearly showed that the candidates were not able to proceed with their original messages and decided to abandon them. In C3 for instance, the word ‘without’ should be followed by
‘facing’ but the candidate decided to abandon the sentence and started with a new one.
Similarly, candidate 5 was about to start her sentence by explaining about the research grant they secured earlier. Unfortunately, that appeared difficult for her and hence, decided to start a new sentence. As for ‘deleting’, its occurrences were relatively low (6.25%) and hence might not be too worrying.
5. Conclusion
With relatively moderate amount of percentage, cases of “aborting’ (14.58%) deserved a serious attention from people of authority with regard to English language teaching in this country. This is because this phenomenon contradicts the ultimate objective of CLT approach which is to enhance L2 learners’ communicative competence. When L2 the candidates who were the products of this communicative approach easily decided to abort their initial intended messages in the midst of their utterances, this could indicate that the CLT approach in this country might not be effectively implemented. Although uttering a new sentence after aborting the earlier one is positively perceived in language learning, it should not be done by compromising the original messages.
To address the above issue, CLT practitioners should encourage our L2 learners to utilize all language sources they have in conveying their messages and be shown how to do so. Exposing the learners to more English language expressions suitable with the context of interactions is a good consideration. More importantly, the instructors must have the patience to allow some
‘processing time’ for the learners to articulate their thoughts and idea until they gain confidence that they will be successful in expressing themselves the way they wish. By doing this, it is hoped that L2 learning will be more enjoyable and make CLT a really successful
‘meaning-focused’ instruction.
6. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education (Malaysia) for the financial support granted under FRGS/1/2019/SS09/UITM/02/11.
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