THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS TOURISM ON BUDDHIST MONASTERIES: AN EXAMINATION OF NINE TEMPLES IN ANG THONG
By
Mr. Panot Asawachai
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor Of Philosophy Program in Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism
International Program
Graduate School, Silpakorn University Academic Year 2016
Copyright of Graduate School, Silpakorn University
EXAMINATION OF NINE TEMPLES IN ANG THONG
By
Mr. Panot Asawachai
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor Of Philosophy Program in Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism
International Program
Graduate School, Silpakorn University Academic Year 2016
Copyright of Graduate School, Silpakorn University
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PANOT ASAWACHAI : THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS TOURISM ON BUDDHIST MONASTERIES: AN EXAMINATION OF NINE TEMPLES IN ANG THONG. THESIS ADVISOR:
DONALD ELLSMORE, DPhilFAPT. 180 pp.
In this dissertation, the impact of religious tourism development on the cultural heritage of sacred Buddhist places is explored through an examination of nine temples in Ang Thong and their communities. The research considers strategies that might permit religious tourism development while conserving the cultural heritage significance of the places. A review of the evolution of tourism development and evaluation of tourism impacts by assessing and studying nine sacred temples’ cultural heritage was undertaken to develop a practicable approach to promoting and managing tourism sustainably.
The research reveals that the development and promotion of the nine temples in Ang Thong occurs in two important stages. The first is the emergence of royal monasteries and common temples that reflect the relationship between the religion and society. Later, change occurs when the qualification of selection of monks for the Samanasak or ecclesiastical honorific title award, which identities on the current Sangha Act- enacted in 1962 and amended in 1992, is associated with the ability to construct and promote material things in the temple compound. Religion tourism is a factor, which drives development inside the temple, transforming community temples into places for religious pilgrimage.
Tourism brings positive and negative impacts on Buddhist monasteries and their communities.
The major positive impacts are contributions to local development in transportation infrastructure, generation of income and employment, and promotion of local culture. The major negative impacts are inequality of income distribution, seasonal jobs and commercialization or commodification of Buddhism.
Cultural heritage education and conservation awareness is needed by abbots, monks and communities. it should be strictly applied as a policy. Moreover, the qualification of selection of monk for the Samanasak must be revised and ability in constructing and promoting material things in the temple compound should not be considered. Furthermore, abbot, monks, host communities, the government sector, tourists, media and the voluntary sector must be involved in safeguarding the culture heritage significance of the nine sacred temples and their communities in order to manage the tourism more sustainably. Local cultural heritage could be sustained for the next generations by adopting these relatively modest changes.
Program of Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism Graduate School, Silpakorn University
Student's signature ... Academic Year 2016 Thesis Advisor's signature ...
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The first person who I must mention is my supervisor, Professor Danald Ellsmore.
He has supported and encouraged me to complete this thesis. I am very glad and proud to be his student. My family, especially my mom is another important source of every encouragement and support always. My last thankfulness is given to Passakorn Boon-yuen, a special person who always stays beside me when I needed for effort and intention to achieve this work. Thank you so much for all of you.
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Page
Abstract ...iii
Acknowledgements ... iv
List of Figure ...viii
Chapter 1 Introduction ... 1
Statements and significance of the problem ... 1
Background ... 1
Goals and Objectives ... 7
Research Questions ... 8
Scope of study ... 8
Research Methodology ... 9
Process of the study ... 13
Theoretical Frameworks and Relevant Documents ... 13
Concept of Religious Tourism ... 14
Religious sites and tourist attractions ... 17
Threats to sacred places and management approaches ... 21
Concepts and Significance of cultural heritage ... 23
Concepts of cultural heritage conservation in Thailand ... 24
2 Determine and describe the cultural heritage values of nine sacred templesin Ang Thong and their communities ... 28
Wat Chaiyo Worawihan ... 28
The temple’s location and general information ... 28
Historic Value ... 29
Aesthetic Value ... 29
Social Value ... 35
Wat Khun Inthapramoon ... 36
The temple’s location and general information ... 36
Historic Value ... 36
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Aesthetic Value ... 38
Social Value ... 40
Wat Khian ... 41
The temple’s location and general information ... 41
Historic Value ... 41
Aesthetic Value ... 43
Social Value ... 48
Wat Mahanam ... 48
The temple’s location and general information ... 48
Historic Value ... 49
Aesthetic Value ... 49
Social Value ... 52
Wat Pamok Worawihan ... 52
The temple’s location and general information ... 52
Historic Value ... 52
Aesthetic Value ... 53
Social Value ... 59
Wat Tha Sutthawat ... 60
The temple’s location and general information ... 60
Historic Value ... 61
Aesthetic Value ... 62
Social Value ... 68
Wat Si Roi ... 69
The temple’s location and general information ... 69
Historic Value ... 69
Aesthetic Value ... 71
Social Value ... 72
Wat Ton Son ... 72
The temple’s location and general information ... 72
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The temple’s history ... 73
Aesthetic Value ... 73
Social Value ... 74
Wat Muang ... 75
The temple’s location and general information ... 75
The temple’s history ... 75
Aesthetic Value ... 76
Social Value ... 78
Spiritual Value of cultural heritage of of the nine temples in Ang Thong ... 79
3 The change in cultural significance and value of nine sacred temples in Ang Thong ... 84
The emerge of royal monasteries and common temples in Ang Thong ... 87
The period of change ... 91
Sangha Act 1902 ... 97
Sangha Act 1941 ... 99
Sangha Act 1962 ... 100
The impacts of religious tourism management ... 120
4 The roles of stakeholders in safeguarding the Cultural heritage significance of nine temples and their communities... 139
Roles of abbot, monks and host communities ... 145
Roles of public sector ... 151
Roles of tourists ... 155
Roles of media ... 159
Roles of voluntary sector ... 161
5 The conclusion ... 165
References ... 174
Biography ... 180
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Figure Page
1 The boundary stones at Wat Chaiyo ... 31
2 The mural paintings inside the ordination hall ... 31
3 Phra Mahaphutthaphim ... 32
4 A white stupa ... 33
5 A stained glass windows ... 33
6 Joining structure ... 34
7 A two-levels bell tower ... 34
8 The Statue of King Rama V ... 35
9 Mural painting at Wat Khun In ... 37
10 Reclining Buddha Image at Wat Khun In ... 38
11 The ruin of Viharn Luang Pho Khao ... 39
12 The ruin of bell-shaped stupa... 39
13 Likay Festival at Wat Khun In ... 40
14 King Rama IX visited Wat Khian ... 42
15 Old ordinational hall of Wat Khian ... 43
16 Principle Buddha image of Wat Khian ... 44
17 Renovated ordination hall of Wat Khian ... 45
18 Mural painting of Wat Khian ... 45
19 Mural painting on the south and north walls ... 46
20 Boundary stone at Wat Khian ... 47
21 Stupa at Wat Khian ... 48
22 Ordinational hall at Wat Mahanam ... 50
23 Stupa at Wat Mahanam ... 51
24 Luang Pho Khao Viharn ... 51
25 Stone inscription at Wat Pamok... 53
26 Ordination hall at Wat Pamok ... 54
27 The roof of the Reclining Buddha image’s ... 55
28 The reclining Buddha image ... 56
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29 Boundary stone at Wat Pamok ... 56
30 Mural painting at Wihan Khian ... 57
31 People are paying homage to the reclining Buddha image and the statue of King Naresuan ... 60
32 Old ordination hall of Wat Tha Sutthawat ... 63
33 New ordination hall of Wat Tha Sutthawat ... 64
34 Boundary stone at Wat Tha Sutthawat ... 68
35 Statue of Khun Rong Palad Chu ... 70
36 Luang Pho Yai ... 71
37 Stupa at Wat Siroi ... 72
38 New assembly hall at Wat Tonson ... 74
39 Meditation retreat at Wat Tonson ... 75
40 The Buddha image at Wat Muang ... 77
41 Mural painting ... 77
42 Ordination hall of Wat Muang ... 78
43 Festival at Wat Muang ... 79
44 Paying homage at Wat Chaiyo ... 83
45 pictures of Wat Tonson in the past and Wat Tonson at present ... 106
46 Fish fertilization center at Wat Tonson ... 107
47 Religious park at Wat Muang ... 109
48 Old picture of Wat Khun In ... 110
49 Hi-Tech ordination hall ... 111
50 Constructing areas at Wat Khun In ... 112
51 The biggest Phra Sangkachai ... 113
52 The new shelter for facilitating ... 113
53 Wat Siroi at present... 114
54 Mural painting & Buddha image at Wat Khian ... 115
55 Viharn Luang Por On at Wat Khian ... 116
56 Mural painting at Wat Tha Sutthawat ... 117
x
57 New prayer hall at Wat Chaiyo... 118
58 New shelter has added in front ... 119
59 King Naresuan and Prince Ekatosarot ... 119
60 Selling amulets at Wat Chaiyo ... 124
61 Drumming village ... 128
62 Ban Bang Chao Cha’s product ... 129
63 Monument of Nai Dok and Nai Thong Kaew... 131
64 Phra Somdet Ketchaiyo ... 134
65 Wat Khun In at present ... 136
66 Wat Tonson at present ... 137
67 Wat Nang Cham... 138
68 New prayer hall at wat Chaiyo ... 140
69 Car park area at Wat Chaiyo ... 140
70 Problems at Wat Pamok ... 141
71 Replacing natural areas at Wat Khun In ... 142
72 The model of key stakeholders ... 144
73 Youth guides at Wat Tha Sutthawat ... 159
74 The member of Kon Rak San Chao Rong Thong group ... 162
Chapter 1 Introduction
Part 1: Statement and significance of the problem 1. Background
Religious tourism refers to various forms of travel undertaken exclusively or dominantly for religious motives (Rinschede 1992; 1999, 197-221). Today, it is one of the most important manifestations of heritage tourism. This is because most religious sites, monuments and destinations also attract cultural heritage tourists. Moreover, a visit to a religious site could be motivated by a religious belief, attraction to its architecture and interest in its historical value all at the same time. Religious tourism, or pilgrimage, in fact is the underlying motive for some of the world’s largest tourist gatherings, and many destinations rely almost entirely upon it for their economic well-being. Many destinations such as Mecca, Jerusalem and Varanasi attract huge numbers of tourists every year that travel to see religious sites.
Buddhism is one of the oldest of the world’s major religions. Buddhism is a system of beliefs and practices centered on the teachings enunciated by the Buddha. Buddha, the person who received enlightenment, was to have a profound impact on the heart and soul of Asia. By the end of the first century following the Buddha’s death, Buddhism began to develop into the Theravada and the Mahayana. The Theravada, meaning “teaching of the elders”, insisted on the upholding of strict rules of monastic behaviour. But, the Mahayana, meaning “great vehicle”, seems to have been more liberal than the first one in many ways. Theravada Buddhism has become the major one accepted in Southeast Asia, most importantly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. Mahayana Buddhism is widely accepted in Nepal, Sikkim, China, Korea and Japan. Thailand has drawn distinction from Theravada Buddhism since the first kingdom’s founding in the 13th century. Sukhothai is the capital of the sovereign state under which the Thai people were first united. Theravada Buddhism was embraced as the national religion at Sukhothai. In the reign of King Rama III of Bangkok, the most important occurrence during this reign was the birth of the Dhammayut group. This was initiated by King Mongkut
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who was later to become King Rama IV. King Mongkut, who was at the time a monk, put into practice what is mentioned and regarded as righteous in the Tripitaka, Buddhist canons of scriptures. Soon this new group called Dhammayut. It was then formally separated from the former group known as the Mahanikaya. Since then, there have always been two groups of Buddhist monks in Thailand. While roughly 95% of the Thai people are practitioners of Theravada Buddhism, it has had a continuous and all-pervading impact on the cultural and social development of Thailand. It shapes the way the Thais think, their traditions and their art.
Therefore, Theravada Buddhism is the greatest of Thai institutions, expressive of and perpetuating the Thai nation, its traditions, its rituals, and its identity. Today it remains the sacred expression of all that is quintessentially Thai. Moreover, popular belief in Theravada Buddhism’s ongoing importance in Thailand is shown in the fact that there are some 30,000 Theravada Buddhist monasteries throughout the kingdom. In 2004, there are 31, 890 monasteries which are belonged to Mahanikaya and 1,987 monasteries which are belonged to Dhammayut.
Buddhism is extraordinary today for its continuing influence and relevance, in spite of changing cultural and economic patterns as well as a growing trend towards secularism in many parts of the world. On the present day imbalance between material and spiritual development, Buddhism represents one of the greatest spiritual resources that can be tapped for the restoration of balanced development as a recovery to world crisis. This is because Buddhism is the religion’s basis in reason rather than dogma, and its emphasis on a balance between wisdom and faith. This puts Buddhism more in harmony with the modern age, and offers real and practical ways of coping with the pressures of the material world. Tourism is a major source of revenue for Thailand and important to the Thai economy. Religious tourism is one of the fastest emerging tourism segments in Thailand, also known in Thailand as Buddhist tourism. Thailand has emerged as the center for Theravada Buddhism. Nowadays, religious tourism in Thailand has spread from standard temple tours to meditation courses and retreats both in Bangkok and rural locales. This niche market not only draws international tourists into Thailand, but also boosts domestic travel and contributes significantly to the local economy. This is because Buddhism is the majority religion of Thailand and it has an enormous influence in the daily life of Thai people.
Furthermore, Buddhism in Thailand has inspired the construction of some of the most spectacular monuments in the country and all forms of art and architecture find expression
in them. Many Thai Buddhist monasteries have served as tourist attractions since the early days of the tourism industry such as The Emerald Buddha Temple (Wat Phra Kaeo) and The Reclining Buddha Temple (Wat Phra Chetuphon or Wat Pho). Nowadays, they are famous religious sites.
For example, Wat Phra Kaeo is regarded as the most significant of all Thai temples because the small green-jade statue of the Buddha that is housed in this temple is the most sacred Buddha image in Thailand. Wat Mahathat Yuwaratrangsarit Rajaworamahavihara is one of the most important religious sites in Bangkok. This temple is the evidence to guarantee that Bangkok is the center for Theravada Buddhism. Wat Mahathat is a large temple in the old Rattanakosin district of Bangkok. The temple is very highly revered and it is one of the six temples of the highest grade of first class Royal temples. The temple also enshrines relics of the Buddha. Wat Mahathat is an important temple for Buddhist studies, as it houses a well known meditation center, Wat Mahathat’s International Buddhist Meditation Centre (IBMC), and the first Buddhist University in the country, the Maha Chulalongkorn Raja Vidlaya University where hundreds of monks study the teachings of the Buddha. The purpose of meditation is to cleanse the mind of irrelevant thoughts and enhance concentration on the central aim of achieving nirvana. Nirvana means “blown out” and refers, in the Buddhist context, to the imperturbable stillness of mind after the fires of desire, aversion, and delusion have been finally extinguished. Nowadays, there are more than 1,000 foreign visitors a year take courses at IBMC.
Ang Thong, originally known as Mueang Wiset Chai Chan, is one of the central provinces of Thailand. It is a small province of 968 square kilometers. Topographically, almost all of the Ang Thong area is low plain with two important rivers, Noi River and Chao Phraya River, crossing the province. Mueang Wiset Chai Chan was located on Noi River. It was an essential frontier outpost of Ayutthaya Kingdom when fighting with the Burmese. As appeared in several parts of Ayutthaya chronicles, especially- prior to the defeat of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Burmese encamped at Mueang Wiset Chai Chan to attack Ayutthaya resulting in the “Bang Rachan Battle”. The Bang Rachan Battle is remembered in Thai history for its alleged resistance against the Burmese invaders in Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767) that ended the Ayutthaya Kingdom. Later during the Thonburi Kingdom (1768-1782), Mueang Wiset Chai Chan was moved to a new site on the left bank of the Chao Phraya River at Ban Bangkaeo and was named
“Ang Thong” (Ang Thong means "golden bowl") since its location is a fertile basin similar to a
water and rice bowl of the country. Ang Thong’s prosperity is evident in its exquisite Buddhist art – architecture, sculpture and painting – some traces of which have remained until today. As Ang Thong used to be an essential frontier outpost of Ayutthaya Kingdom, Theravada Buddhism from Ayutthya Kingdom spread to Ang Thong as Ayutthaya was essentially a capital of Theravada Buddhism.
At present, Ang Thong is a famous destination for Thai chronological study and travel for religious motives for both Thais and foreigners because there are more than 200 magnificent and interesting Buddhist temples in this province. These magnificent temples are rich in cultural significance, which consists of aesthetic value, historic value, scientific value and social value. In 2010, “Paying Homage to Nine temples in Ang Thong” launched by the provincial administration in cooperation with Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) These nine temples are Wat Chaiyo Worawihan, Wat Khun Inthapramoon, Wat Pamok Worawihan, Wat Tonson, Wat Mahanam, Wat Thasutthawat, Wat Siroi, Wat Khian and Wat Muang are the main tourist attractions for religious tourism in Ang Thong. Moreover, there are nine temples in Ang Thong that are well-known for Thai Buddhist pilgrimage. The reason for selecting “Nine” is Thais pronounce the number “nine” as “Kao” which is a homophone of the word “Kao” which means to step forward and to progress in Thai language. Therefore, Thais believe that paying homage to nine sacred temples within a day will bring prosperity to their lives.
Wat Chaiyo Worawihan houses the Buddha image 'Phra Maha Phuttha Phim', which is highly respected by inhabitants of neighbouring provinces. The temple is also well known for the sacred amulets called “Somdet Wat Chaiyo” which are very popular among collectors. The name of the temple means “victory” in Thai language. So, Thai worshipers believe that pilgrimage to this temple will bring luck in work and business.
Wat Khun Inthapramoon houses the longest and largest reclining Buddha image in Ang Thong, 50 meters length from the topknot to the feet. Originally, the reclining Buddha image was housed in the chapel. But, the temple was on fire and was left deserted with the Buddha image in the open for centuries. Many Thai kings went to pay homage to the image such as King Borommakot (in Ayutthaya period) in 1753, King Rama V in 1878 and 1908 and the present king in 1975.
Wat Pamok Worawihan is noted for housing one of the most grand reclining Buddha images in Thailand. The image is 22.58 meters from the topknot to the feet, made of brick and covered with gold. In Thai Chronicle, it mentioned that King Naresuan the Great before leading his troop to attack Phra Maha Upparacha of Burma stopped at this temple and paid homage to the image.
Wat Tonson is an ancient temple housing Somdet Phra Sri Mueangthong, a very beautiful seated Buddha image. This Buddha image is regarded as the one of the largest metal molded Buddha images with beautiful posture. Moreover, this temple offers meditation retreat for both beginners and experienced meditators. The retreat will introduce meditation concept and meditation practice to participants. The meditators will learn how to meditate to relax both the mind and body.
Wat Thasutthawat is an ancient temple. At present, this temple is under the royal patronage of Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn. Inside the ordination hall, Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn had her personal painters and drawers from the Royal Folk Arts and Crafts Project draw the mural paintings illustrating Phra Maha Chanok (the second life of Lord Buddha in the Jataka), history of Ang Thong province. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn graciously drew a mango tree on this temple wall as well.
Wat Mahanam is an ancient temple housing “Luang Pho Khao”, a four hundred years old seated Buddha image. The villagers believe that this Buddha image was built in the reign of King Naresuan the great.
Wat Siroi, there is a seated Buddha image in the posture of Pa Lelai, called Luang Pho To. This sacred Buddha image is a replica of Luang Pho To in Wat Pa Lelai in Suphanburi province.
Wat Khian is an ancient temple. Inside the ordination hall are exquisite mural paintings featuring stories of 10 former incarnations of the Lord Buddha, which were presumably the workmanship of a painter school in Muang Wiset Chai Chan in the late Ayutthaya period.
Wat Muang houses the largest Buddha image in Thailand – 95 meters tall. The largest Buddha image is named Phra Buddha Maha Nawamin, which was constructed in commemoration of 50th anniversary of His Majesty the Kings throne ascendancy.
However, these temples are not located close to each other. So, the possibility of paying homage to these nine temples within a day is difficult. Therefore, in 2012, Ang Thong’s tourism board and Ang Thong Provincial Administration Office campaigned a day-trip to three monumental Buddha statues of three sacred temples (three of the nine) with the slogan “Big, Long, Win”. These three temples are Wat Muang, Wat Khun Inthapramoon and Wat Chaiyo Worawihan. The slogan refers to life as “big” for your work growth, “long” for your life long and
“win” for your success in work career. This can be proved that Ang Thong nowadays is promoted to be a destination for traveling faith. Furthermore, Ang Thong Provincial Administration also promotes the above nine temples for Thai Buddhist pilgrimage under the slogan of ‘Paying Homage to nine sacred temples in Ang Thong for receiving lucks’.
In the case of Ang Thong, the rapid growth of domestic mass tourism, along with the modernization and urbanization of the local communities, has been a significant source of problems. As in many tourist destinations in developing countries, tourism has served as a powerful means of boosting the national economy. Tourism plays a vital role in generating local revenue in Ang Thong, but it also has adverse impacts on the cultural heritage values of the temple. Nowadays at many temples in Ang Thong, the local communities are enjoying tourism activities while being less and less concerned about their local heritages. Although modern development from tourism brings modernity, transportation, income and also education to the local community, the other concern about modern development is its negative results toward the contexts and fabrics of the temples and their heritage, both tangible heritage and intangible heritage. Due to increased commercialization, local people are still enjoying their new-found economic prosperity. They continue to expand tourism industry into their areas by converting their agricultural lands and temple sites for tourist parking or new commercial activities. Some local communities consider this situation as a good chance to generate income and economic opportunities for the residents. Thus, they have gradually developed their local settings including village, markets, temples or old buildings into new tourism forms corresponding more to emerging new needs of tourists and visitors. Consequently, the cultural heritage sites and natural resources have all been exploited in order to attract tourists. Tourism and development is proven impacts on local cultural identity as places to respond to the different needs of visitors and tourists. For example, changes in functions at monasteries, as buildings are adapted for more
commercial activities, including coffee shops results in modification of traditional those sacred places without adequate concern for their original cultural heritage fabrics and characters.
Moreover, village abbots and local communities often fail to see the value of local Buddhist art and architectural styles. Instead they encourage their replacement with new buildings and they replace natural greenery with artificial materials and surfaces. In other words, the local communities and their local temples are now in the process of transformation for tourism. Under this influence the cultural heritage and environment assets are converted into economic commodities and putting the community’s spiritual welfare at risk. Further, the changes upset the environment balance of the built form and fabric of religious places. Changes can introduce new threats to the ongoing conservation of those places as works to harden them for increased visitors numbers and foot traffic often result in increased moisture and salt damage in the masonry structures, with very damaging, irreversible impacts.
2. Goals and objectives
This study is explores the impact of religious tourism development on the cultural heritage of sacred Buddhist places through an examination of nine temples in Ang Thong and their communities. The research considers strategies that might allow religious tourism development while maintaining the significance of local heritage places. It explains how previous plans from the local government offices to promote relgious tourism activities at nine sacred temples in Ang Thong failed to explore the impact of the development on the residents and community groups. There is now a need to review the evolution of tourism development and evaluate tourism impacts by assessing and studying nine sacred temples’ cultural heritage in order to formulate a practicable approach that will promote sustainable tourism. In doing so, this study seeks to improve and encourage the sustainability of tourism development by incorporating aspects of cultural heritage conservation in community development plans. Therefore, the objectives of this research are as follows:
1. To determine and describe the cultural heritage values of nine sacred temples in Ang Thong and their communities.
2. To map the changes in cultural significance and value of nine sacred temples in Ang Thong and their communities through documentary and oral resources.
3. To determine the positive and negative impacts of religious tourism development on cultural heritage significance and value of nine sacred temples in Ang Thong.
4. To consider policies that could assist in safeguarding the cultural heritage significance of nine sacred temples and their communities to manage the tourism sustainably
3. Research Questions
1. What are the important factors determining the impact of religious tourism on these nine sacred temples in Ang Thong?
2. How can religious tourism in nine sacred temples in Ang Thong be managed to assist in safeguarding the cultural heritage significance and their communities for creating sustainability?
Sub-questions for the research
1. What kinds of cultural heritage significance are revealed in these nine temples and how we can describe the cultural heritage significance of these nine temples?
2. How have these nine temples been transformed through the periods of time and by which factors?
3. What are the positive and negative impacts of religious tourism development on cultural heritage significance and value of nine sacred temples in Ang Thong?
4. What is the perception of the local communities and visitors toward local heritage conservation?
5. How do impacts of religious tourism in these temples influence the lives of local communities?
6. Do the existing plans of conserving the cultural heritage significance of nine sacred temples and their communities sustain enough?
7. Who are the main stakeholders to coordinate in considering policies that could assist in safeguarding the cultural heritage significance of nine sacred temples and their communities?
4. Scope of the study
1. The area of study covers five districts in Ang Thong where these nine sacred temples are located. The locations of these nine temples can be linked as a pilgrimage route starting from Pamok district where Wat Thasutthawat and Wat Pamok are located, to Mueang
district where Wat tonson is located, to Wi Set Chai Chan district where Wat Muang, Wat Siroi, and Wat Khian are located, to Pho Thong district where Wat Khun Inthapramoon is located and to Chai-yo district where Wat Chai-yo and Wat Mahanam are located. The scope of the study includes the assessment of these nine sacred temples’ cultural significance and values. This involves observing and exploring transformation of the fabrics of temples and also local communities relating with them.
2. The scope of study focuses on the evolution of nine sacred temples through the periods of time and impact of religious tourism development in both positive and negative impacts, and the cultural heritage management for sustainable tourism of the temples and their communities.
3. Information will be gathered from documentary and oral sources including, interviews with the abbots, monks, local communities, government organizations, academics, private-sector operations, visitors and people working in architecture. This information will help when considering policies that could assist in safeguarding the cultural heritage significance of nine sacred temples and their communities to manage the tourism sustainably.
5. Research methodology
This research is focused on qualitative method. Qualitative method aims to gather an in-depth understanding of issues studied. The method also aims to investigate the why and how of decision making on the specific issues. In this case, research instruments of this research will be carried out as follows:
1. Literature research 2. Field observation 3. In-depth interview
4. Interview / focus group meeting / participatory research
Literature research: The researcher has conducted a through literature search from books, academic journal, research reports, government data, daily newspapers and the Internet.
The research will focus on topics relevant to the study. This literature research helps for basic understanding and background of temples’ contexts from the past until today. Furthermore, information or data of what these temples are involved into the government policy of promoting religious tourism will be also observed.
Field observation : The research has made an inventory of cultural heritage significance that has relevance to religious tourism at these nine sacred temples and their communities by observation and photographic recordings. Field data sheets have prepared to facilitate field data collection. Relevant temples’ antique collections, if available, are examined to determine the changes in cultural heritage significance and values of these temples and the temple’s communities over time.
Field research was carried out at several points in the year of 2014 and on both weekdays and weekends. Although these nine sacred temples and their communities can be visited all year around, it is important to do the research in each month since there are different factors leading to visit. For example, there are some significant annual festivals for paying homage to the Buddha images of five sacred temples (five of the nine) as the calendar for annual festivals in Ang Thong can be seen below.
Month Festival
January -
February -
March Paying homage to Somdet Phra Sri Mueangthong festival at Wat Tonson
April Song Kran festival and paying homage to the reclining Buddha image festival at Wat Khun Inthapramoon
May -
June -
July -
August -
September -
October 1.) Paying homage to Luang Por Maha Phuttha Phim festival at Wat Chaiyo Worawihan
2.) Paying homage to the reclining Buddha image and Buudha’s footprint festival at Wat Pamok Worawihan
Month Festival
November Loy Krathong festival and paying homage to Luang Por To festival at Wat Siroi.
December -
In-depth interview : This was undertaken with the abbots, monks, leaders of local communities, government organizations’ officers, academics, private-sector operations, visitors and people working in architecture. All interviews were recorded by using a portable tape recorder (if permitted by the respondents) to avoid any disruptions caused by note taking. The groups of interviewees are classified as followings:
1. Abbots, monks and local communities who are groups of people initiating idea of developing, managing and promoting their temples as tourist attractions. Furthermore, any effort or action for preserving their cultural heritage significance will come from these groups as well.
Moreover, Thai Buddhists observe several Buddhist important days. There are six important Buddhist holy days which are fixed in accordance with Thai lunar calendar. These are (1.) Maghapuja Day, means “worship on the full-moon day of the 3rd lunar month in commemoration of the Great Assembly of Disciples (2.)Visakhapuja Day, Visakhapuja means “worship on the full-moon day of the 6th lunar month in commemoration of the birth, enlightenment and passing of the Buddha.” (3.) Asalhapuja Day, Asalhapuja means ““worship on the full-moon day of the 8th lunar month in commemoration the first sermon given by the Buddha.” (4.) Buddhist Lent Day or Wan Khao Phansa, this is a very old tradition for Buddhist monks to stay in their monasteries during the rainy season. (5.) The End of Buddhist Lent Day or Wan Ok Phansa, this is the last day of 3-month Rains Retreat which falls on the full-moon day of 11th lunar month.
(6.) Tak Bat Thewo Day, this Buddhist commemoration day relates to the Rains Retreat.
According to the Buddhist Scriptures, The Buddha, after attending enlightenment, ascended to Tavatimsa, the second level of heaven, to spend a 3-month period preaching his doctrine to his mother. There will be Buddhist activities on these six important Buddhist holy days. Thus, it is important to interview abbots, monks and local communities about these six important Buddhist holy days to observe their Buddhist activities.
2. Agents from governmental organizations such as Fine Art Department and Tourism Authority of Thailand who have their own duties of monitoring, taking care and
promoting the temples. The information from Fine Art Department including academics in architectural heritage management and people working in architecture will generate us about the information of technology and innovation of heritage preservation and management. For information from Tourism Authority of Thailand will acknowledge us about the strategies to promote these temples as religious tourism attractions.
3. Visitors will be the last interviewees. These groups of people come to visit and generate the income for their satisfaction but contribute many impacts later. The interview will focus on building the mutual understanding of religious tourism sustainably and also expectations of visitors when they come to visit these temples.
Interview / focus group meeting / participatory research: The research approaches local residents in the communities that are nearby the temples to solicit their personal opinion about the cultural heritage significance and values of the temples. The researcher will also participate in religious and cultural ceremonies and festivals that reflect the communities’
cultures.
Collection of data
This research will comprise two kinds of data. Primary and secondary data will be used in this research. The primary data means that the data is collected directly from the target population. The researcher will visit these nine sacred temples and their surrounded communities by observation in the field and interviews with respondents and record of the natural, modified and disturbed features of the study areas including the linkages of these features with cultural heritage significance and religious tourism. The target population is the abbots, monks, local communities, government organizations, academics, private-sector operations, visitors and people working in architecture. The secondary data refers to data gathered from academic references (e.g. books and journals) and literature (e.g. government reports) from the national library and internet.
Analysis of data
As all interviews are undertaken in Thai language, the collected data is transcribed and translated into English. To reduce bias and misunderstandings arising from translations, the researcher refers translation-related concerns to some English native speakers in Thailand.
Analysis the results will comprehend into these topics:
1. Analysis of value and cultural significance of these temples which is including aesthetic, historic, social and scientific values.
2. Determining of changes in nine sacred temples and their cultural heriatges with an emeragence of religious tourism and disruption from tourists.
3. Determining the positive and negative impacts of religious tourism development on cultural heritage significance and value of nine sacred temples.
4. Consideration and development of policies for the management recommendations on developing and managing the cultural heritage significance and value of nine sacred temples and their communities for creating sustainable tourism.
6. Process of the study
1. Literature search of relevant information, including the analysis of related case studies published in Thai and English literatures.
2. Field survey of nine sacred temples in Ang Thong and their communities 3. In-depth interviews to target groups
4. Data analysis and evaluation
5. Conclusions and recommendation about the significance of cultural heritage in nine sacred temples in Ang Thong and their communities in sustainable tourism
Part 2: Theoretical Frameworks and Relevant Documents
This part is concentrated on relevant concepts and theoretical frameworks for understanding background of this research. It is also included reviewing of relating documents and researches. This part begins with the concept of what is the definition and purpose of religious tourism and how it is different from cultural heritage tourism. Moreover, the threats to sacred places and management approaches will be included for understanding the problems that will be occurred when a sacred site becomes a place for tourists and how management approaches would reduce those threats. Next, the concept and significance of cultural heritage will be discussed for estimating the values of the places. Moreover, the concept of cultural heritage conservation in Thailand will be involved in this part because there are three temples in Ang Thong that are enrolled as Ancient Monuments. Lastly, the characteristics of Thai Buddhist monastery will be included for acknowledging the special characteristics of Thai Buddhist
monastery. This concept will consist of the classes of monasteries, monastery layout and elements of the monastery. Therefore, it will divide into main three parts consisting of:
1. Concept of religious tourism and Religious sites as tourist attractions 2. Threats to sacred places and management approaches
3. Concept and significance of cultural heritage and the concept of cultural heritage conservation in Thailand
Concept of religious tourism
Tourism, “the largest ever movement of people across national borders” (Urry 2002, 141) is a part of modern global life. Tourism is one of the fastest-growing industries and one of the world’s largest sources for employment and income. Moreover, tourism also provides many jobs to local people and boosts local economies. However, the importance of tourism is not confined to the economic sphere alone. Tourism is also a cultural phenomenon, shaping ways in which we perceive and act in the world, extending beyond the very act of traveling. In the past, tourism and religion had been seen as independent and mutually exclusive subjects. Nowadays, this misconception is changed the way we look at religion and tourism because they are interrelated. The first book that talks about the interrelationship between religion and tourism is Tourism and Religion by Boris Vukonić, a Professor of Economics at the University of Zagreb.
He addresses that “tourism provides people with the conditions for the spiritual enrichment of the individual and his or her constant self-development as a personality.” (Vukonić 1996, 18) This is because his perspective is focused on Catholicism, theology and pilgrimage.
In 2003, six Brazilian anthropologists and sociologists have presented to the international conversation on religion and tourism. They contributed Religious Tourism:
anthropological essays on religion and tourism (in English translation) (Abumanssur ed., 2003) to give the readers an idea of “religious tourism”. the opening essay by Maria Ângela Vilhena concludes pilgrimages as a source for renewal of life. Carlos Alberto Streil introduces the term
“religious tourism” to emphasize the unique and distinct features of pilgrimage as an experience.
Moreover, Edin Sued Abumanssur tries to point out the meaning of “religious tourism” that it is the convergence between tourism and religion in events like the large-scale travels to the
“national sanctuaries” of Brazil such as Senhor Bom Jesus de Iguape where religion, consumption and leisure form a “promiscuous” union. Emerson José Sena da Silveira explains the connection
and mutual interference between tourism, consumption and leisure and he also claims the occurrence of a “carnivalization” of the religious. Christian Dennys Monteiro de Oliveira defines the term of religious tourism as traveling faith and travel motivated by faith. Furthermore, he also classifies types of sanctuaries (traditional, natural, technological, festive), sites and rituals. The final one is by Paulo Roberto Albieri Nery. He does not mention religious tourism but discusses walks and related pastime practices among the lower classes in Brazil.
The another interesting publication that shows the relationship between religion and tourism, entitled Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Management (2007), is published by the European Association for Tourism and Education (ATLAS) Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Special Interest Group. The authors of this publication are from tourism, hospitality and events management studies. The interesting is the authors point out in their introductory essay that “for a reassessment of analysis underlying religious motivations of travel and a full exploration of the pressures for sacred spaces to become venues for commercialized and festivalized arenas” (Raj and Morpeth 2007, 13).
Therefore, the meaning of “Religious tourism” defines as “various forms of travel undertaken exclusively or dominantly for religious motives. Pilgrimage is just one of the forms religious tourism may take. Others include attending religious conferences, festivals, conventions, etc.” (Rinschede 1992; 1999, 197-221). Moreover, Boris Vukonić defines “religious tourist” as
“a tourist who undertakes his/her journey for religious motives and who demands that certain religious content be included in the obligatory range of touristic supply amenities” (Vukonić 1996, 75) According to Vukonić there are three main forms of religious tourism:
(1) pilgrimages
(2) religious events (“large-scale gatherings on the occasion of significant religious dates and anniversaries”)
(3) “a tour of and visit to important religious places and buildings within the framework of a touristic itinerary” (Vukonić 1996, 75)
However, “religious tourism” is embodied in other forms of tourism such as cultural heritage tourism. To make a difference between religious tourism and cultural heritage tourism, Vukonić’s own premises explains that such tours and visits will only count as “religious tourism”
when they are motivated by religious needs and motives. There are some common purposes of religious travels/tourism:
1. Education and training
2. Events (gospel concerts, papal visit, melas, etc.), fairs and expositions 3. Feasts and festivals
4. Healing and seeking other this- or other-wordly benefits 5. Holidaying in a religious environment (camps, etc.) 6. Mission and other forms of propaganda/evangelism 7. Pilgrimages
8. Purchase of religious objects 9. Retreats
10. Rituals
11. Seminars, conferences. Meetings, conventions 12. Spiritual self-discovery and growth
13. Visits to religious authorities for counseling, confession, etc.
These forms of religious travels are integral parts of many religions. However, religious motives are always together with other motivations such as desires to be away from workplace, to relax, to spend time with family and loved ones, to discover and learn the new culture or to be entertained and to satisfy curiosity. So, this means religious motivation may be part of trips that were not, or at least not originally, motivated by religion. This may occur accidentally or intentionally, but such intentions are often not “religious” in the first place. When tourists just arrive to a place where a religious festival is being celebrated, this is called
“accidental exposure to religion”. When European tourists make a trip to visit The Emerald Buddha’s Temple in Bangkok, but without having religious motives in their minds or without the intention of performing any religious act such as praying or meditating, this is called “intentional exposure to religion”. Exposure to religion is not the same as being affected by religious indoctrination or religious belief systems. Exposure to religion here means encountering religion in its material side of places, events, performances, actions, and objects or their respective media representations. Tourists can focus on religion, be attentive to religion and be appreciative of religion (Timothy and Nyaupane 2009, 8).
Religious sites as tourist attractions
In tourist settings, consequently, many religious places are generally not primarily visited for their specific religious qualities. There are many religious places to perform rituals or to create religious experiences, but visitors often visit them because of their apparent or assumed history and historical significance and their aesthetical dimensions including their architecture, arts, their sheer size (Vukonić 1996). Thus, it has been pointed out that religious sites not only attract pilgrims, but also ordinary travelers who appear to visit these places for various reasons such as to experience cultural heritage, history, identity and memory, and aesthetical density.
Local residents often take their friends and visitors to such sites and act as local guides – and from time to time locals also visit religious sites for motives that are not primarily religious: religious sites serve not only as tourists but also as visitor attractions (Rotherham 2007, 77).
Here are some categories of religious sites serving as tourist attractions:
1. shrines 2. mosques 3. synagogues 4. stupas 5. pagodas 6. ancestral halls 7. monasteries 8. pyramids 9. temples 10. ashrams 11. caves 12. lakes 13. mountains 14. islands 15. groves
16. cemeteries and other burial places
17. sites associated with (persecuted) religious minorities or religious deviance 18. town and sites of violent conflicts, including battlefields.
Most of these places are not only visited by culture and heritage tourists, but make up part of the schedule of almost every category of tourists (Stausberg 2011, 80). Moreover, many religious sites have served as tourist attractions since the early days of the tourism industry. Using Tourism Studies terminology, the high profile religious sites can be referred to as “primary nuclei” – that is attributes of places, which are influential in making the decision to visit the respective place. Apart from these, there are “secondary nuclei” – i.e. attributes known before visiting the place, but which were not decisive for the choice of itinerary. An example for this category are various churches in Rome; few people travel to Rome in order to visit Santa Maria Maggiore, but the church is still well-known. Last but not least there are “tertiary nuclei” – that is, such attributes unknown before the visit, only to be discovered on the road, often by means of signposts, or after arrival at the destination (Leiper 1990, 374).
Religious sites are marketed and promoted by various branches of the tourism industry. Often, images of religious sites grab the attention of the potential traveler already before departing. Notre Dame, St. Peter’s and The Temple of Emerald Buddha visually represent the destinations Paris, Rome and Bangkok respectively. In one way or the other, religious places and people are part of a wide range of promotional materials including travel magazines, travel programs, advertisements and brochures for many destinations. As the conclusion, religious sites are used prominently in tourism promotional literature (Olsen and Timothy 2006, 1). This reflects the attractiveness of religion as a parameter for creating a theme for destinations, where religious sites and motives can work as notable aspects of the scenery and the setting. For tourists visiting Thailand, tourism management/hospitality research has identified Buddhism as a “minor motivation”, ranking in importance behind motivations such as special interests, novelty seeking, good value food/shopping/things to do and deals on tour promotion/currency exchange (Rittichainuwat, Qu and Leong 2003).
Here is one example (from 2014) to illustrate the blending of expectation and domains of eroticism, religion and relaxation: “Chiang Mai is one of the few places in Thailand where it is possible to experience both historical and modern Thai culture coexisting side by side:
the city features centuries-old pagodas and temples next to modern convenience stores and boutique hotels.” www.tourismthailand.org/Where-to-Go/Chiang-Mai (accessed 20 March 2014) juxtaposes “once in Chiang Mai, however, tourists are surprised by the fact that there are so
many things to discover other than its beautiful and historic temples.” The status of temples and statues in tourism contexts also finds its expression in their being transferred to the design of other tourism spaces such as hotel lobbies and rooms, sometimes to the extent of kitsch such as when they form parts of lampshades (Selwyn 1993, 121). This reflects the attractiveness of religion as a parameter for creating a theme for destinations, where religious sites and motives can work as notable aspects of the scenery and the setting.
Nowadays, heritage church buildings in many European city centers are predominantly used by tourists and locally known as tourism churches such as Notre Dame in Paris. Thus, in many places, ordinary tourists clearly outnumber pilgrims or “religious tourists”
(Olsen and Timothy 2006, 12). For this advantage, public administrations often invest funds in the renovation of religious buildings in order to make their countries, towns or regions more attractive to travelers. One of the most spectacular instances of this development has been the restoration of Wat Arun Ratchawararam, or the Temple of Dawn, one of the city’s main landmarks in Bangkok. In 2012, The Fine Arts Department was to table to the government a three-year restoration project for Wat Arun Ratchawararam, or the Temple of Dawn, valued at 100 million Baht. This historic temple is located on Thon Buri side of the Chao Phraya River. It was built in the Ayuthaya period. In 2012, it was in need of urgent repair, particularly its main stupa. The project of restoration of Wat Arun Ratchawararam served many purposes, not the least political ones, but it was clear from the outset that tourists would make up the main group of users. The restoration of the temple was an international media event.
For the United States, Paula Kane has recently commented:
Cathedrals remain an important part of American cityscapes, but only insofar as they participate in the sanitized theatrical effect that cities hope to use to attract tourists. Cities that can advertise themselves as having heterogeneous religious traditions and diversity of architecture hope to use this marketing contest to succeed economically. The quality of Moneo’s design easily enable Los Angeles to sell it as a must-see piece of architecture for visitors, but the Archdiocess will have to work to defend the sacrality of the building against the city’s desire for theatrical display. (Kane 2006, 149)
Similar situations can also be perceived in other parts of the globe, even in countries whose governments do not have a prestige for being compassionate to religion. Considering the
case of China, where Buddhist, Confucian and Daoist sites have recovered a new status as public areas in tourism industry at present. The Temple and Cemetery of Confuius and Kong Family Mansion in Qufu are a case for studying. The Red Guards had been allowed to damage the site during the Cultural Revolution, but the Open Door Reforms from 1978 led to a new emphasis on tourism, encouraging the rehabilitation of numerous cultural and religious sites; as a result of this new policy, by the early 1980s Qufu saw a large inflow of investments into tourism accommodations. In 2004, the town had 4,5 million domestic and 170,000 international visitors (Yan and Bramwell 2008, 978), the vast majority of whom came for the Temple and Cemetery of Confucius.
Also, Buddhist monasteries in China are inheritors of the the joint forces of religious renewal and tourism boom. Studying from the Chan Buddhist Shaolin monastery on Mount Song (one of the Taoist Five Sacred Mountains) in the Dengfang district of Henan Province. The temple had been abandoned for many years after the Cultural Revolution when the monks were jailed and the buildings purified of Buddhist materials. This temple becomes a famous religious site because of its association with martial arts. It is now a major tourism attraction visited by 81 percent of the some 3.2 million annual visitors to Dengfeng city along with the early Taoist Zhongyue Temple in its vicinity (Mu et al. 2007, 108) The case of the Wutai Mountain in Shanxi, which has been strongly promoted as a tourism attraction, illustrates the increasing commercialization of religious sites as a result of their exposure to tourism. Many hotels, restaurants, shops, stalls and street vendors operate on the mountain with its surviving 43 monasteries. Interviews conducted by Fangfang Shi point to ambivalent reactions to this atmosphere of commerce and sense of commercialization. Some respondents approved of the commercialization since it, among other reasons, created a livelier atmosphere and because they felt that it might even help to create an interest in Buddhism among visitors. Other respondents however, were disapproved by the commercialization, partly because it was seen as a threat to the religious character of the site, and partly because of the unpleasant degree of haggling that had started to occur (Shi 2009, 209-210).
In Hong Kong, where tourism totals to the second largest source of foreign currency (Cheung 1999, 576), temples, rural shrines and ancestral halls have been renovated. Preservation of religious sites is funded and supported by the Hong Kong government. They are marked and
developed for the tourism industry (Cheung 1999, 572). According to Tik-sang Liu, the function of these buildings changes after renovation. In other words, the buildings are preserved, but not their functions: “the religious center is turned into a museum and is open to the public. Formerly religious buildings have become a cultural resource for the Hong Kong tourist industry” (Liu 2003, 392). Instead of arenas for local religious practice, some buildings are part of a so-called Heritage Trail created in 1993 for tourist consumption. Interestingly, while originally promoted by the Hong Kong Tourist Association “for international tourists who are looking for the real “old China”, with traditional folk religious, ancestor worship and lineage family organization”
(Cheung 1999, 577).
In the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, where the government has promoted tourism development since 1990 and where tourism now is one of the top exchange earners, the government has taken steps to designate selected temples as tourist attractions. Active steps were taken to ground this agenda amoung the religious specialists. Experts from the National Tourism Authority of Lao PDR even “offer lectures to monks at the Buddhism college on tourism issues”
where “particular attention is given to the temples as prime examples of the people’s cultural and religious heritage”1
For Myanmar, the military junta has shown the investment in preserving and renovating Buddhist sites in a political project meant to attract international tourists. To domestic tourists, the same project has served to propagate the idea of a unified nation. (Philp and Mercer 1999).
Threats to sacred places and management approaches
While all the examples above consider as the religious sites are used as the tourist attractions, another issue is that of commoditization. Geographer Daniel Olsen claims that the transformation of religious into tourist sites “changes the meaning of sacred sites from that of worship and contemplation to that of leisure” (Olsen 2003, 99). The growth in the number of tourist visitors leads to extra work for the staff at the religious sites. Large and important religious structures in terms of visitor attraction that can afford it have some kind of administrative
1 Promotion of Buddhist Tourism Circuits in Selected Asian Countries (2003, 33) (based on a report prepared by the National Tourism Authority of Lao PDR)
structure in place for the management of visitors. In English cathedrals, already in the 1970s new jobs were created to meet the demands noted by tourism. these jobs included shop and public relations officers, information officers, visitation officers, guide tours secretaries, etc. (Hanna, Marris and Lefley 1979, 90). Also smaller sites have some administrative facilities (Woodward 2004, 181). Besides the staff, many sites engage the work of volunteers. In 1983, a third of English parish churches had volunteers for helping visitors (Hanna 1984, 7). Major cathedrals could call on more than 100 volunteers from their parish (Hanna, Marris and Lefly 1979, 90), many of whom acted as guides.
Normally, access to many sacred sites is restricted when ritual activities are being performed. Moreover, noise, traffic and congestion, overcrowding, inappropriate dress and behavior are some of the main disturbances encountered at the most sacred places when the sacred places get into tourism. They might diminish the experience of worshipers, threaten the religious character of sites and might lead to conflict between local residents and tourists.
However, the crowd is not only seen as a disturbance for the locals but also, it is for the tourists themselves. Annoyances and nuisances apart, tourists may actually damage the places they access. Almost inevitable ecological consequences include general wear and tear, microclimatic change, garbage, pollution, erosion and accidental damage, often caused by the desire to physically connect to the site. Moreover, theft and destruction (often motivated by the desire to take away an original/authentic piece of the site as a souvenir), removal of offerings, graffiti and vanadalism such as “breaking pieces of buildings or statuses, spray-painting over sculptured reliefs, carving names or slogans or burning” (Timothy and Nyaupane 2009, 59) are common occurrences at many heritage sites including religious structures.
Cultural Resource Management scholar Myra Shackley has pointed out that
Any religious sites have rigidly hierarchical clerically-dominated management structures which may have functioned in the same way for thousands of years. Such structures are largely unaffected by modern management trends. Some sacred sites seem not to be managed at all, and merely exist in a management vacuum where things happen by custom and nobody is too bothered with achieving specific targets. (Shackley 2001, 90)
Shackley analyzes several strategies for controlling visitor flows employed at sacred sites. Apart from types of available means of transport and vehicle management to the sites,
visitor flows at the sites and within the buildings are influenced or controlled by means of zoning, entrance fees and pay perimeters (Woodward 2004, 178-79). Other techniques include queue controls, temporary closure or diverting visitors to other sites, forcing all visitors into guided tours, restricting or increasing visiting times, establishing visitor centers, shortcutting walking distances, and specially designed visitor flow routes (Shackley 2001, 55-75). As soon as sites exceed their so-called “optimal visitation level”, Shackley argues, the experiential quality of the visitation is diminished, visitors feel dissatisfied and unhappy, and even “the physical fabric of the site may be adversely affected” (Shackley 2001, 66). By the way, maintaining and running religious tourists sites can cost tremendous amounts of money which often needs to be collected from visitors. Admission, collections, donations and retail including the sale of souvenirs are some of the more common ways of merchandising to generate revenue.
Apart from the damage or other forms of impact and changes resulting from the exposure of religious sites, tourism development might also cause of the demolition of religious structures. For example, in Bali, in 1993, there was a project to build a luxury holiday resort on the site of the Tanah Lot temple. This temple is located on the cliff and this temple is a favorite tourism site because of a scenic spot to the sunset. This resort project was faced with an unprecedented wave of protest, the opponents unanimously insisting “that Tanah Lot is a symbol of Bali throughout the world and that the Balinese see it as a symbol of their identity” (Picard 1996, 193). Eventually, a compromise was come out and the Indonesian Hindu Council decreed in 1994 “that no building could be built within a two kilometer radius of the Tanah Lot temple”
(Picard 1996, 194).
Concepts and significances of cultural heritage
Understanding about the concepts and significances of cultural heritage is very important for conservation and preservation of sites’ significances. In addition to these cultural heritage, understanding about the assessment of cultural heritage significances is also the essential first step for conservation and preservation of sites’ significances. According to Burra Charter (1999), cultural significance means aesthetic, historic, scientific or social value for past, present or future generations. Cultural significance is a concept helping in estimating the value of the places. The places that are likely to be of significance are those which help an understanding of the past or enrich the present, and which will be value to future generations. For estimating of
nine sacred temples in Ang Thong, this concept is applied. The meaning of cultural heritage values in the context of cultural significance is discussed below.
Aesthetic value: Aesthetic value can provide an aesthetic, emotional experience for the viewer. Its criteria might include consideration of the form, scale, color, texture and material of the fabric which associates with the place and its use. Furthermore, the aesthetic values of buildings, artworks and artifacts can create as an inspiration for contemporary artists, both those working within traditional forms and those working in a modern style.
Historic value: Historic value contains the history of aesthetic, science and society.
A place might have historic value because it has influenced, or has been influenced by, an historic figure, event, phase or activity. It might also have historic value as the site of an important event.
However, some events or associations might be so important that the place maintains significance irrespectively of subsequent treatment.
Scientific value: The scientific or research value of a place will depend on the importance of the data involved, on its rarity, quality or representativeness, and on the degree to which the place might contribute further substantial information.
Social value: Social value comprises the qualities for which a place has become a centre of spiritual, political, national or other cultural feeling to a majority or minority group.
The concept of cultural heritage conservation in Thailand
Cultural heritage conservation in Thailand has been combined with interested of the monarchy in preserving ancient monuments. The cultural heritage management has started an official concern for preserving historical monuments in the reign of King Rama V (1668-1910), and during the reign of King Rama VI (1910-1925) a section of the Palace’s religious affairs office was divided into a form a fine arts department concerned especially with Buddhist monument. In 1925 this department was moved from the palace to the National Museum, under the supervision of the Royal Council. Later an act of parliament in 1932 established the Fine Arts Department as a section of the Ministry of Religious Affairs. After that, it moved to the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Culture. In 1943, Field Marshal Pibulsonggram (1897-1964), the Prime Minister, established a new university, the University of Fine Arts or Silpakorn, to train students in art, art history and archaeology to provide staff for the Fine Arts Department. Most of
the early fieldwork by the Fine Arts Department of Thailand was involved with proto-historic and historic ruins, primarily in Phimai, Lopburi and Ayutthaya.
The main legal instrument at present that the Thai Fine Arts Department involves with is the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museum, B.E.
2504 (1961). Bhumibol Aduladej, REX. Given on the 2nd Day of August, B.E. 2504; Being the 16th Year of the Present Reign, amended in B.E. 2535 (1992). The act is mostly concerned with the ownership and administration of ancient monuments, antiques, art objects and national museums and it is also focused on monumental and aesthetic qualities of ancient objects and sites.
The followings are excerpts from Thai conservation law that would appear to apply to past, present and planned development activities on the grounds of ancient monuments in Ang Thong :
In (Section 4) of the Ancient Monument Act 1961, amened in 1992, the specific terms “Ancient Monuments”, “Antique”, and “Object of Art” were defined as:
1. “Ancient Monument” means immovable property which, by its age or architectural characteristics or historical evidence, is useful in the field of art, history or archaeology and shall include places which are archaeological sites, historic sites and historic parks.
2. “Antique” means an archaic movable property, whether produced by man or by
