國立臺北護理健康大學人類發展與健康學院 嬰幼兒保育系-國際蒙特梭利碩士專班
International Montessori Master Degree Program Department of Infant and Child Care College of Human
Development and Health National Taipei University of Nursing and Health Sciences
碩士技術報告 Technical Report
指導教授：張孝筠 博士
Adviser: Chang Hsiao-Yun, Ed. D.
蒙特梭利學前教材的設計與運用—以基礎運動技能融入球 類運動教學為例
Montessori Materials Design and Implementation for Three-to-six-years-Old Children—Fundamental
Movement Skills-Based Balls Teaching Activity
研究生：張鳳菊 撰 Name: Chang Feng-Chu
May 2020
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Acknowledgement
Finally, I finished this long-term program. I appreciate my adviser Hsiao-Yun Chang who gave me a lot of support and encouragement, because of her kindness, I can move forward with much energy until now. I’d like to say my deep appreciation to my lovely family, teachers, and friends. In these two years, my dear family always be my best backup, so I can study and work hard in this program without worries. I met many good teachers in this period, included Sherry, Charlotte, Harbour, Kathryn, Kathy, Annette, Sophie, Mandy Wong, and Chieh-Yu Liu, I appreciated you taught me and brought me many happy studying times.
Besides, I want to thank my dear and lovely friends, Sinsin, Winnie, and Karin, to be my wonderful classmates in the periods. Thank you for accompanying me, such as we studied so hard, prepared exams, shopping crazily, and had fun together. Thank you, my lovely sisters and friends. Moreover, I still need to say thank you to my friends who I don’t write up above but gave me many encouragements in this period. Thank you and love you all. In sum, I have to say I’m so glad to study this program. I appreciate this program let me advance my
academic knowledge and practicum experiences of early childhood education. Thank God, and my lovely family and friends.
Feng-Chu Chang May 2020, Taiwan
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Abstract
Purpose: this study was to design a project by using fundamental movement skills (FMS) based on balls teaching activity to increase children’s FMS skills and the knowledge of FMS and balls. Methods: I used TGMD-2 and self-designed questionnaire to collect data. One group paired sample t-test was used to analyze the differences between pretest and posttest results of FMS skills and the knowledge of FMS and balls. The participants were 3 to 6 years children from the same Montessori class at the preschool of Taipei city. Result: After three months with FMS project implemented, not only the children’s knowledge of the FMS and balls had been increased significantly, but also their FMS skills. Conclusion: This project could enhance children’s FMS skills and the knowledge of FMS and balls.
Keywords: early childhood education, motor skills, physical activity, Montessori method
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蒙特梭利學前教材的設計與運用—以基礎運動技能融入球 類運動教學為例
摘要
本研究的主要目的為以基礎運動技能融入球類運動教學作為蒙特梭利學前教材來
設計活動與應用教學。研究方法採用單一樣本前、後測進行基礎運動技能認知問卷調
查，以及TGMD-2評估幼兒的基本動作技能來檢視教學活動的結果；研究對象以臺北
市某蒙特梭利3至6歲混齡班幼兒為實施對象。研究結果顯示，本研究幼兒在經過3 個月的基礎運動技能融入球類運動教學後，幼兒對基本動作技能與球類的認知皆有明 顯進步，且基礎動作技能的動作技巧也有顯著進步。本研究的蒙特梭利學前教材的設 計與運用對於參與本研究之3-6歲幼兒的基礎動作技能與相關球類或動作認知程度皆 有提升。
關鍵字：學前教育、動作技能、身體活動、蒙特梭利教學法
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Contents
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION... 1
1.1 Motivation and Background of This Study... 1
1.2 Purpose of The Study... 2
1.3 Definition of Terms... 2
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW... 5
2.1 Fundamental Movement Skills... 5
2.2 Montessori’s view of Physical Activity... 6
2.3 Montessori Teaching Approach and Principle of Material Design... 9
CHAPTER III METHODS... 17
3.1 Participants……… 17
3.2 Measures………. 17
3.3 Procedures………. 18
3.4 Data Analysis……….. 19
CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……... 20
4.1 Descriptive Statistics of the Knowledge in FMS and Balls... 20
4.2 Results of Fundamental Movement Skills... 22
4.3 Discussion... 23
CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION…... 27
5.1 Conclusion... 27
5.2 Suggestion... 27
5.3 Limitations and Future Directions ... 27
REFERECES…... 28
APPENDICES…... 33
APPENDIX I…... 33
APPENDIX II…... 38
V
APPENDIX III…... 42
APPENDIX IV…... 51
APPENDIX V…... 69
APPENDIX VI…... 72
VI
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Knowledge comparison between of pre-test and post-test in FMS and
Balls... 21 Table 4.2 Paired t-test of FMS performance between pre-test and post-test scores... 23
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Motivation and Background of This Study
Maria Montessori believed, “only by action can the child learn at the age between three and six. He has to do something which develops his unfolding self” (Montessori, 1967, p172).
Movement is a core tenet of Maria Montessori’s teaching approach (Woods, 2000). Through multiple physical working and experiences can build up the development of a child. To do more physical activity not only benefits on reducing child obesity, but also good at child’s physical health (Strong, et al., 2005 ; Poitras et al., 2016; Warburton & Bredin, 2017, 2019), cognitive and mental health (Strong, et al., 2005, Lubans et al., 2016), and social skills (Strong, et al., 2005, Gehris, Gooze, & Whitaker, 2015). To preschool children, physical movement is one of crucial work in the daily lives, like water and air, is indispensable.
In 2012, the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan promulgated in the eighth item of the implementation guidelines of early childhood education and daycare services and stated preschoolers ought to implement over 30 minutes gross motor physical activity per day for children which is a duty all of educators of preschool should provide. This new policy mentioned how the physical activity important to preschoolers are. As Montessori said in 1946, the children’s first plane of development is “movement” (Montessori, 2012). Through the physical movement practices, in the first plane, from 0 to 6, children are in the sensitive period and can absorb abundant of experiences from environment by movement experiences to accumulate their intelligence, physical, mental, and social ability. Thus, in a Montessori classroom, children should have many physical works and experiences.
The gross motor skills in physical development is one important criterion of children’
development level. Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are part of gross motor skills. FMS is a vital part of a child’s development and is a key factor in the promotion of lifelong physical activity (Cools, De Martelaer, Semaey, & Andries, 2011, Foulkes, 2016). However,
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after observation of the children in my intern classroom for several months, I found out many children in my intern classroom were not good at using their limbs and body for exercise.
Some children fall easily, some children's running posture was bad even some children couldn’t jump. Therefore, I decided to design a relative physical education in my project in order to enhance children's poor movement skills.
I believed children need to have more experience in exercising and physical activities in school. After considering the follow-up reasons, I discussed with my supervising teacher, and then I decided to use the FMS to be my project's theme. I named this project “Let’s Move”
which I hoped the children can be familiar with using their physical to work and know how to use the body to move fluently, besides, they can have more knowledge of FMS. To improve children’s FMS allows children to advance on to more complex movements, resulting in them functioning successfully in their daily lives and when participating in sports and physical activity (Foulkes, 2016). Thus, this study focused on the “Let’s Move” project on how to affect 3 to 6 years children’s FMS skills and the knowledge of FMS and balls.
1.2 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study aimed to understand a designed project of fundamental
movement skills-based balls teaching activity how it intervened in children's knowledge and skills of fundamental movement skills. This study focused on two main questions, including a). Did the knowledge of fundamental movement skills change after the intervention of this project? b). did the locomotor skills and object control skills change after the intervention of this project?
1.3 Definition of Terms
A. Fundamental movement skills (FMS)
FMS is “an organized series of basic movements requiring the combination of movement patterns of two or more body segments” (Gallahue and Donnelly, 2003). In this study, FMS referred to Test of Gross Motor Development version 2 (TGMD-2), which included locomotor
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skills and object control skills. Locomotor skills included running, galloping, hopping, leaping, jumping, and sliding. Object control skills included striking, bouncing, catching, kicking, throwing, and rolling.
B. Montessori Curriculum
The Montessori curriculum usually divided into five learning domains included practical life, sensorial, mathematical, language, and cultural domains. The Physical environment is also divided into five areas in accordance with these five domains. In this project, I designed teaching materials related to practical life, sensorial, mathematical, and language. These materials were based on the theme of FMS and balls, included ball sewing, balls’ mystery bag, color ball sorting, sports story-telling cards, ball object box, fundamental movement 3 part cards, basketball pre-math, numerals and soccer counters (numeration 0-9), as Appendix IV. Moreover, the gross motor activities based on the FMS and balls were introduced to children in the daily physical muscular activity time. Children practiced FMS by multiple physical activities with balls.
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Fundamental Movement Skills
A. Definition and connotation of fundamental movement skills
Gallahue and Donnelly (2003) define a fundamental movement skills (FMS) as “an organized series of basic movements that involve the combination of movement patterns of two or more body segments” (p. 52). FMS are the foundational skills that lead to specialized movement sequences required for participation in many organized and non-organized physical activities for young children and adolescents (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002).
According to Gallahue, Ozman and Goodway (2012), these movements are commonly categorized as locomotor (run, hop, jump, slide, gallop, leap); object control (strike, dribble, kick, throw, underarm roll, catch); and stability skills (non-locomotor skills such as body rolling, bending, and twisting). Especially, locomotor skills and object control skills have been widely and frequently evaluated in children’s FMS development (Kim, Kim, Valentini,
& Clark, 2014; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Rudd, Barnett, Butson, Farrow, Berry, & Polman, 2015).
The development of fundamental movement skills is a key factor in the promotion of lifelong physical activity (Cools, De Martelaer, Semaey, & Andries, 2011). Many evidence proved that to develop the FMS throughout childhood has been positively associated with physical activity in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (Barnett, Van Beurden, Morgan, Brooks, & Beard, 2008; Stodden et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2008). Therefore, let children to learn FMS in the early childhood is vital and good for them.
The gross motor skills in physical development are one important criterion of children’s development level. Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are part of gross motor skills. FMS is a vital part of a child’s development and is a key factor in the promotion of lifelong physical activity (Cools, De Martelaer, Semaey, & Andries, 2011, Foulkes, 2016). FMS is
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Physical Literacy (PL), a term that was defined as an individual who has the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take
responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life (Whitehead, 2016), and also is one of important physical competence (Foulkes,2016).
In sum up, advanced children’s FMS competence help them to develop a complex ability of sports and exercises and physical literacy. Teachers and adults have the responsivity to
provide enough opportunity for children to participate in.
B. Introduction of TGMD-2
The Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD) was first published in 1985. This examiner’s manual was designed by Dale A. Ulrich (2000), and he published the second version as the TGMD-2 in 2000. There were two subtests that made up the TGMD-2, which divided numerous movement skills into locomotor and object control, each assessing a different aspect of gross motor development. Ulrich (2000) indicated the Locomotor Skill measures the following gross motor skills which require fluid coordinated movements of the body as the child moves in one direction or another:
1. Run: The ability to advance steadily by springing steps so that both feet leave the ground for an instant with each stride.
2. Gallop: The ability to perform a fast, natural three-beat gait.
3. Hop: The ability to hop a minimum distance on each foot.
4. Leap: The ability to perform all of the skills associated with leaping over an object.
5. Horizontal Jump: The ability to perform a horizontal jump from a standing position.
6. Slide: The ability to slide in a straight line from one point to another.
The Object Control Skills measures the following gross motor skills which demonstrate efficient manipulative movements:
1. Striking a Stationary Ball: The ability to strike a stationary ball with a plastic bat.
2. Stationary Dribble: The ability to dribble a basketball a minimum off our times with the
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dominant hand before catching the ball with both hands, without moving feet.
3. Catch: The ability to catch plastic ball that has been tossed underhand.
4. Kick: The ability to kick a stationary ball with the preferred foot.
5. Overhand Throw: The ability to throw a ball at a point on a wall with the preferred hand.
6. Underhand Roll: The ability to roll a ball between two cones with the preferred hand.
According to the systematic review of FMS, from 2000 to 2015, 79% of studies reported exclusive use of a process-oriented measure to assess FMS, and with 64% of those studies administering the Test of Gross Motor Development I and II (Logan, Rossa, Cheea, Stoddenb,
& Robinson, 2018). Thus, this study was decided to use TGMD-2 to be the measurement of FMS. The details of the measurement of TGMD-2 and scoring were showed in Appendix VI.
2.2 Montessori’s view of Physical Activity
A. Benefits of physical activity on young children
Physical activity (PA) was defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscle requiring greater energy expenditure than resting (Caspersen, Powell, & Christenson, 1985).
PA is important to be established during early childhood of under 5 years and it is important at all stages of life for physical health outcomes, such as the prevention of diseases of the
cardiovascular system, obesity, and many other chronic medical conditions (Strong, et al., 2005; Reilly, et al., 2005; Poitras et al., 2016; Ghazi et al., 2016; Warburton & Bredin, 2017, 2019; Timmons et al., 2012; Vale, Trost, Rego, Abreu, & Mota, 2015), mental health, included cognitive and physical self-concept (Strong, et al., 2005; Babic et al.,2014; Lubans et al., 2016), and social ability (Strong, et al., 2005, Gehris, Gooze, & Whitaker, 2015). Above research had mentioned that PA help children’s health in different dimensions. In other hands, FMS is relative to physical activity participating experiences and is an important component of physical competence (Whitehead, 2016).
The health benefits of routine physical activity and exercise participation is undoubted.
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(Warburton & Bredin, 2017, 2019). Importantly, even simply moving is still one kind of physical activity, “the simply moving more led to significant health benefits (Warburton &
Bredin, 2017)”. Thus, routine physical activity can benefit on wholistic wellness, such as spiritual, emotional, mental, and physical wellbeing (Warburton, 2016, Warburton & Bredin, 2019). Physical activity help individual’s health without any doubt, even routine movement or simply moving all benefit to our physical health and other relative invisible health.
In sum, if you want to help children get more health by physical activity, to let children act more and stimulate their inner motivation to play are important. The early childhood is the best time for them to familiar with physical activity, which is related with FMS competency development and benefit multiple dimension of health.
B. Montessori’s View in Physical Activity of Young Children
In the Montessori preschool system, the environment, materials, and teachers were the most three crucial factors to encourage children to choose activities and direct their own learning (Ramush, 1992). “Learning by doing” is the main idea of Montessori how she believed the children to learn. Montessori understood and believed motor development was one of the important factors that can affect children's mental, physical, and moral aspects. Through many and variety of physical movements to stimulate concentration which in turn provides the beginning of the development of the will: "once his attention has been focused, he becomes his own master and can exert control over his world" (Montessori, 1967, p. 217). Besides, the development of the will evolves through the child's experiences, as he learns to exert his will
"both for the purposes of action and of restraint from action" (Montessori, 1967, p. 262).
Thus, movement is playing a crucial role in children’s development.
The Montessori teaching approach was child-center and teachers need to “follow the child.”
Teachers are a guide to help children building up their concentration, independence, and normalization (Montessori, 1966, 1967, 1972). A prepared environment stimulates children to work. Montessori classroom usually has large space and freedom to walk during the working
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duration (Montessori, 1972; Lillard, 2008), children attending Montessori preschools were more physically active than children attending traditional preschools (Pate, O'Neill, Byun, McIver, Dowda, & Brown, 2014). In sum up, a proper Montessori preschools’ classroom setting could enhance children’s PA opportunity and time, because Montessori deeply
believed that the movement and physical activity not only is the functional incarnation of the creative energy children possess but also is an essential factor for intellectual growth
(Bergeron, 2000). Thus, the Montessori preschool emphasizes that let every individual take enough exercise to keep his muscles in a healthy state otherwise the young bodies become inert and stagnate the mind and potential (Montessori, 1966). The benefits of physical movement are many, from the apparent refinement in coordination to the more subtle development of order, intelligence, and morality (Woods, 2000).
Maria Montessori (1967) believed educational gymnastics, which included gross and fine motor skills, help children to develop in a variety of aspects, such as physical, mental, and moral. For this reason, the Montessori classroom emphasizes the development of motor skills by working with practical life activities. These practical life activities require using the shoulder, arm, and fingers, for example, scrubbing a table, and clipping beans with a clip.
These physical activities let children to practice more and to enhance eye-hand coordination.
Therefore, the Montessori educational theory trusted many physical movements practices, both gross motor skills, and fine motor skills because it positively associates with children's development, the practical life area is the crucial and basic part in the Montessori classroom for younger children.
In summary, Montessori’s educational core theory is learning by doing. Physical activity is free and vital for children to practice every day, children can develop and get independence and normalization by doing physical works. Thus, working with multiple physical activities is an important component in Montessori’s teaching philosophy.
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2.3 Montessori Methods and Principle of Material Design
A. Montessori Methods
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) is considered one of the pioneers of early childhood pedagogy over hundreds of years. Montessori spent a long time to educate with children in Rome and develop her special teaching approach to be a highly organized pedagogy for children (Lillard, 2005), she established her first school, called a Casa dei Bambini, and her special teaching system in 1907 (Lillard, 2012). Montessori education was using daily experiences of young children, which they could explore through working, to build up the construction of their own consciousness and self-construction (Dorer, 2007).
Montessori developed an integral pedagogical method that assists children in these important tasks, based on her systematic observation and scientific investigation in different cultural settings. She mentioned her methods was divided into three parts: motor education, sensory education, and language (Montessori, 1914). In generally, many Montessorians and Montessori training organizations, such as Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) or American Montessori Society (AMS), divided the Montessori classroom into five main areas, which included Practical Life, Sensorial, Mathematics, Language, and Culture (involved science, history, geography, biology, botany, zoology, art, and music). Each area in Montessori Classroom has specific learning aims:
1. Practical Life Area:
These are activities that aim to the care of the person, caring for the environment and lessons in grace and courtesy. These activities include tasks that are familiar to the child:
pouring, sorting, sewing buttons, carrot peeling, serving, mirror polishing and many other activities using real life objects in a child sized environment. These activities encourage good work habits, increase order, concentration, independence, coordination, and develop self- discipline (Montessori, 1964). The Practical life activities prepare the child for all other subject areas of the classroom.
2. Sensorial Area:
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Sensorial materials were designed to help children express and classify their sensory experiences. The sensorial materials are tools for children to refine each of their senses.
Activities often include matching and grading materials that isolate the sense of sight, sound, touch, taste, smell, and stereognostic. The purpose of sensorial activities is to aid in the development of the intellectual senses of the child, which develops the ability to observe and compare with precision and it can prepare children’s basic concept in mathematics as well.
3. Language Area:
The language area is to help children learn a communication ability or idea using
conventionalized sounds and symbols to become the written and spoken language. Through language-based activities, such as the sandpaper letters and the moveable alphabet, children learn phonetic sounds and how to compose words phonetically. Basically, the spoken language is the foundation for writing and then reading.
4. Mathematics Area:
Mathematical materials are designed to help children to learn and understand mathematical concepts by using concrete materials to acquire the abstract concepts. Children use concrete materials such as number rods, sandpaper numbers, number boards, spindle box, beads, and games to build up their logical thinking and gradually enhance their concept from concrete to abstract.
5. Cultural Area:
This area is divided into science, history, geography, biology, botany, zoology, art, and music. This area introduces children to the physical world of plants, animals, and other nature relatives. Children can explore the differences and similarities among people, and have opportunities to see, hear, smell, taste, and manipulate the real things that build up their different cultural knowledge and experiences.
Through a well-prepared environment in these 5 learning areas, Montessori thought
children had the absorbent mind (Montessori,1967), which referred to children in the stage of early childhood were the sponge-like capacity to absorb from the environment what was
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necessary to create an individual from their specific culture. During the absorbent mind, birth to age 6, children were in the most sensitive periods (Montessori,1967), which their interests could help focused on developing a particular skill or knowledge from what they see, hear, touch, smell, and taste. Montessori believed when adult follow children’s interests then providing appropriate materials and a well-prepared environment for them, they ought to help them to be normalization (Montessori,1967), which means to help children to modify their character to be more self-disciplined, gradually.
In brief, Montessori teaching approach focused on 5 learning areas, which included practical life area, sensorial area, mathematical area, language, and cultural area.
B. Characteristics of Montessori Education
Lillard (2005) mentioned that eight general principles in Montessori Education consist of movement and cognition, choice, interest, internal rewards, learning with peers, learning in context, teacher-child interaction, and order in the environment and in the mind. Dorer (2007) listed the ten essentials of Montessori education, which included: mixed age classes, prepared environment, Montessori materials, repetition, movement, freedom of choice, independence, respect, the Montessori view of the child, and the trained adult.
In Montessori’s education idea that a Montessori classroom’s environment and materials should be well prepared by teachers. Teachers’ verbal and non-verbal behaviors all are role models for children. Montessori outlined the six essential components to a Montessori environment as freedom, structure, and order, reality and nature, beauty and atmosphere, the development of community life, and authentic Montessori Materials (Scotty, n. d.). Teachers can use these six crucial components to make appropriate learning surroundings:
1. Freedom
Montessori believed that a child must be free to explore and follow his own natural impulses, thus developing his potential and increasing his knowledge of the world around him. Within the prepared environment, the child must experience the freedom of movement,
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freedom of exploration, freedom to interact socially, and freedom from interference from others. Freedom is developed through choice. Children follow the ground rules to proceed as he chooses and develop discipline by providing meaningful work in order to achieve both physical and emotional freedom. Thus, children are given many opportunities for constructive work.
2. Structure and Order
In a Montessori classroom, everything is a sequence and process because children are in the sensitive period, which means a child learns quickly by his/her senses from environment.
A child will know where to find the work and return it when finished. Teachers should provide an environment with structure and order to help children to develop their confident, and to be a reasonable learner.
3. Reality and Nature
In the Montessori classroom, the children are given real tools to complete real work. Child- size tools and the environment always have child-size furniture, small chairs, and tables that fit them. Children learn how these materials work, for their own growth as well as safety.
Nature for Montessori meant the outdoor creatures should be considered. Montessori believed that children should experience nature and not be confined to an indoor classroom, therefore live plants and animals should be included in the classroom. Shells, rocks, leaves, nests, etc. can be on display and available for examination. Children learn how to protect environment and care creatures through interact with the natures.
4. Beauty and Atmosphere
Beauty and atmosphere of the Montessori classroom is achieved through a comfortable and homelike environment. Montessori was very concerned that children be exposed to beautiful things and beauty in nature. Children will develop a sense of beauty from exploring by seeing, listening, tasting, touching, etc. Thus, in the Montessori classroom, all of the materials should be made of the best quality and should reflect that which is beautiful in their design.
5. Materials
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Montessori believed the authentic objects and real wood materials are preferred over plastic and real artwork decorates the walls alongside student-created pieces. Most important is that the materials chosen for the environment should correspond to each individual child’s inner needs; thus, the environment must contain many different kinds of materials, and the teachers, at times, must make new materials when she sees the need for a child or group of children.
6. Development of Community Life
Montessori thought all individuals must learn to live and work in communities. Therefore, the Montessori classroom is all mixed age, such as 3-6 years, this allows for leaving a child in a group or moving him to the next group as his skills and understanding required. Children become more socially aware when they grow up and interact with mixed-age friends, such as older students can model more advanced behaviors for younger children.
C. Principle of Montessori materials design
Montessori materials were scientifically designed in an experimental context within the classroom. Teachers are the key person to decide what kind of materials need to provide to children, therefore, paying special attention to children's interests is the basic principle that a teacher should take, such as the belief of manipulating concrete objects helps the development of knowledge and abstract thinking is a vital and basic concept of designing materials.
According to some unknown author's articles and handout, and the manuals’ of American Montessori Society (AMS), the principle of designing Montessori materials can basically be integrated into six elements: meaningfulness to the child, the isolation of the difficulty, materials progress from simple to complex, materials prepare indirectly for future learning, and materials begin as concrete expressions and graduate to abstract (Scotty, n. d.). Loeffler (n. d.) mentioned that Montessori material and strategies related with several important terms, as isolation of difficulty, point of interest, control of error, motives for activity, three-period lesson, parallel exercise, bridging from previous exercise, concrete to abstract, whole to prats to whole, simple to complex, and so on. The AMS’s sensorial manual’ content showed the
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Montessori material designing principles, included materials, presentation, language, points of interest, direct and indirect aim, control of error, age, and variation (Rigg, 2013).
According to these concepts, I integrated the design principles of Montessori material into 7 points:
1. Aims
To decide the material’s direct aim and indirect aim are the most crucial parts of designing a Montessori material, and it is hard to point out clearly because it might relate to several learning areas, but necessary. Designers could use real objects from concrete to abstract, as mathematical materials. Pointing out the aims of materials can help teachers’ guiding accuracy and efficiency for different levels of individual children.
2. Materials
When teachers design new materials for children, the materials with good quality,
practicality, security, diversity, economical efficiency, environmental protection, beauty, and reality, are crucial material-making principles for teachers to concern. It might be hard to fill up all choosing principles but it still needs designers or teachers to attempt to think and research.
3. Isolation of difficulty
Each material should focus on one concept or one skill to be mastered so the child can fully focus on that concept or skill.
4. Control of error
Built-up feedback in the activity that signals to the child that he can use the material to correct his/her work by himself and not always depend on teachers. Putting control of error in activities can strengthen his/her self-esteem and self-motivation as well as her learning, and help children to self-learning and self-correcting as well.
5. Point of interest
Each material has its own interest to inspire children’s learning motivation. To design an interest point to attract children’s working desire.
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6. Language
When designing a new work, list out important term or vocabulary and use three-period lesson to introduce to children. This is can help children to increase their language
development.
7. Variation and extension
According to children’s age and development status differences, teachers should consider different levels of variation and extension activity in order to keep children’s learning
motivations; moreover, to provide children similar activities or parallel activities to strengthen children’s concept. Variation activity is using different way to manipulate same material and to learning the same concept. Extension activity is based on the original learning point to increase a relative activity which usually difficulty or different from the original activity. To consider material’s difficulty from simple to difficult is vital as well.
D. Procedure of demonstration of the materials
As a Montessori teacher, when he/she want to demonstrate a material to child we could refer 11 procedures, which had mentioned in the sensory manual of American Montessori Society (Rigg, 2013). The procedure of demonstration of a materials can follow:
1. Matching child to material: The Montessori Method mention that an adult how to
provide a matching or appropriate material to children is a crucial decision. It is the beginning and most important step to demonstrate a work to children.
2. Invite a child: Teachers need to be polite to invite a child to do a work with you by using
“May I show you________?” or “I will show you_________”. The reason of invitation is based on freedom for children to choose their works. It’s an important process in teaching activity.
3. Name the material: Talk to children which work you want to show them. It can help to memorize the name of that work.
4. Locate the material on the shelf: Hold his/her hand to the shelf and point out the
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material.
5. Procedure for carrying the material: Show him/her how to carry material in right way.
6. Table or rug: Put the material on the table or a rug.
7. Positioning of adult in relationship to the material and the child: Generally, adults sit on the right side of children during the presentation. This allows for a natural flow of materials from left to right and top to down without the adult’s hands and arms covering over that which has already been laid out.
8. Name the activity: Tell children the name of this activity, which you’re going to do. For example, “I’m going to grade the red rods from longest to shortest”.
9. Organizing the material on the table or rug: The ability to organize a task spontaneously is one of the goals for the child in a Montessori environment. The Child is in a sensitive period for order, but this sensitivity must find support in the environment. So, the adult must take care in the placement of the box or basket in the upper left corner of the table or rug. In simplify, to keep a same order when every time to demonstrate materials to children.
10. The Presentation: During a presentation the adult makes the choice of when the child may participate.
11. Replace the material: Shoe the child how to carry the material appropriately and to return to the shelf, and replace the rug if used. Let the child to learn how to get materials ready for next person.
In briefly, there are 11 steps in the procedure of a material demonstration, includes
matching child to material, invite a child, name the material, locate the material on the shelf, procedure for carrying the material, table or rug, positioning of adult in relationship to the material and the child, name the activity, organizing the material on the table or rug, the presentation, and replace the material. This procedure can recommend to Montessori teachers to use but revisable.
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CHAPTER III METHODS
3.1 Participants
This study had total 27 children participated, included 10 girls and 17 boys. The average age of participants is 4.35±0.88 years-old. All of participants belonged to same classroom of a Taipei city private Montessori preschool.
3.2 Measures
Knowledge Questionnaires for Pre-test and Post-test
For this project’s purposes, I introduced photos of the 12 fundamental motor skills as (Appendix I) and 8 different balls activities (Appendix II) for children. I chose the 6 locomotor skills (included run, gallop, jump, hop, slide, leap), 6 object control skills (included strike, bounce, catch, throw, roll, kick), and 8 balls (baseball, basketball, soccer, football, tennis, badminton, table tennis, and cloth ball). I asked each child “Do you know what is run, gallop, jump, hop, slide, leap, strike, bounce, catch, throw, roll and kick?” and
“Can you show me how to do it?” If children said he knew what is gallop but he could not do the correct movement, I marked he didn’t understand this movement. I also asked each child
“Do you know what this ball is?” and showed the picture to him/ her. I collected the data about which fundamental movements and balls each child was able to recognize. I created pre-test and post-test data charts to record the children’s responses for both fundamental movements and balls questions. The questionnaires of knowledge of FMS and balls was showed at Appendix V.
TGMD-2 for Pre-test and Post-test
I used The Test of Gross Motor Development -Second Edition (TGMD-2) (Ulrich, 2000) to exam children’s locomotor skills and object control skills. The details of examination of
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TGMD-2 was showed at Appendix VI.
3.3 Procedures
A. Project making
After 3 months’ observation, reference collection, and discussions with my supervisor teacher and advisers, I decided to make a movement relative project for our children. The project was named “Let’s Move” which I hoped the children can be familiar with using their physical to work and know how to use the body to move fluently, besides, they can have more knowledge of fundamental movement skills. The primary aim of this project was to focus on four points. First, to introduce the fundamental movement skills (Appendix I) for children. Let children know the differences of these movements, which included 6 locomotor skills and 6 object control skills, and to learn how to move fluently with their body in these movements. Second, I created the materials related to sports tools in four different areas to stimulate children's learning motivation with their favorite exercise and games. Third, let children learn 8 balls' names (Appendix II) and deepen their knowledge between the fundamental movement skills and the balls. Fourth, through physical activities and several picture books introduce sportsmanship and friendship to children.
B. Materials Designing
The primary materials in my project included four parts of the areas. In the practical life area, I observed many children liked to make handicrafts, so I created the Ball Sewing in this area. In the sensorial area, I created the Balls’ Mystery Bag and the Color Ball Sorting for children to work by using their sensory. In the language area, I designed the Sports Story- Telling Cards, Ball Object Box, Fundamental Movement 3 Part Cards, and Ball 3-part cards for children to learn the spelling and language tell. In the mathematics area, I created a Basketball Pre-math and a Numerals and Soccer Counters (NUMERATION 0-9) for children to practice. Because my intern classroom did not have any pre-math work, I believed this pre-
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math activity could prepare children's numeral concept and enhance their motivation to count numbers. The detail of all materials as Appendix III and Appendix IV.
In this project, I believe to follow the child and to find what kind of thing they really need and interest in can help children's development. I hope children can use my materials of Let's Move project to get the learning interests from the classroom. The most important goal is I expect these activities can help children to integrate different fields of cognition and ability from the practical life area, sensorial area, language area, and mathematics area.
C. Project Implementation
The project implementation included pre-test collection, project teaching implementation, and post-test collection. I started to do pre-test collection from February 12 to March 5, 2019.
Then, after pre-test, I began to teach the “Let Move” project for the children of my intern preschool about the knowledge and skills of FMS from March 7 to May 25, 2019. To collect the post-test of the project began from May 26 to Juan 12, 2019.
3.4 Data Analysis
All analyses were performed with SPSS software, version 18.0 version for windows. The descriptive statistics and paired- sample t-test was used for this result analysis. The level of significance, α value, was limited less than 0.05.
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CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Descriptive Statistics of the Knowledge in FMS and Balls
I analyzed the knowledge in FMS and balls of pre-test and post-test, the results were showed in table 4.1. From the result, I discovered that all children knew what was called
“run” and they all did this movement correctly. Most of the children could identify the difference between the hop and jump and showed me the right movement, but some of them confused the hop and jump. However, all the children did not understand what gallop, slide, and leap even does not know how to do these movements. In the object control skills, the data showed many children were familiar with kick, bounce, catch and they knew how to perform the correct movements. Not many children knew what the term of the strike, throw, and roll was. I thought the reason for this misunderstanding was we used the term "hit" when we taught children to strike a ball in Chinese. Some of them knew how to do the movement of hit a ball, but they did the movement of the strike. At the table, I recorded the child did not have the recognition of this movement. In the balls test, I thought many children know what these balls' name is. Soccer was known by all the children, they were familiar with basketball, badminton, baseball, and football as well. Only cloth ball no child knew it.
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Table 4.1 Knowledge comparison between of pre-test and post-test in FMS and Balls Knowledge Item Pre-
test Post- test
Increasing Numbers
Increasing Percentage (%)
Total Percentage of the Knowledge (%) Locomotor
Skills
Run 27 27 0 0.0 100.0
Gallop 0 25 25 92.6 92.6
Jump 21 26 5 18.5 96.3
Hop 18 26 8 29.6 96.3
Slide 0 21 21 77.8 77.8
Leap 0 20 20 74.1 74.1
Object Control Skills
Strike 1 25 24 88.9 92.6
Bounce 19 25 6 22.2 92.6
Catch 18 24 6 22.2 88.9
Throw 7 25 18 66.7 92.6
Roll 10 26 16 59.3 96.3
Kick 22 27 5 18.5 100.0
Balls Baseball 14 27 13 48.1 100.0
Basketball 22 26 4 14.8 96.3
Soccer 27 27 0 0.0 100.0
Football 14 25 11 40.7 92.6
Tennis 4 20 16 59.3 74.1
Badminton 19 27 8 29.6 100.0
Table Tennis 12 21 9 33.3 77.8
Cloth Balls 0 25 25 92.6 92.6
From the data of the post-test of this project, I thought the Let's Move had reached the goal successfully. Over 93% of children knew what run, gallop, jump, and hop was, and over 74%
of children had learned what slide and leap was. In the object control skills, 18 children had learned all of object control skills, only 1 three-years-old child could not cognate 5 object control skills. Compared with the pre-test, children enhanced their cognition of fundamental movements. The results of the ball’s post-test showed all children could 100% identify
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baseball, basketball, badminton, and soccer. The other balls had over 81% could be identified by children.
I found after several weeks’ “Let’s Move” project, children’s knowledge of FMS and ball had increased, their locomotor skills and object control skills were better than before as well.
According to the data and observation, I found children could identify different balls that would use different fundamental movements to play. Thus, they could easily integrate knowledge with their real physical experiences.
4.2 Results of Fundamental Movement Skills
This result was used TGMD-2 to measure children’s fundamental movement skills which included locomotor skills (run, gallop, jump, hop, slide, and leap) and object control skills (strike, bounce, catch, throw, roll, and kick). Table 4.2, the locomotor skill’s score was sum up from run, gallop, jump, hop, slide, and leap and the object control skill’s score was sum up from strike, bounce, catch, throw, roll, and kick. The FMS score was sum up from the total score of locomotor skills and the total of object control skills. From the paired t-test results of table 4.2, it showed children’s locomotor skills and object control had significantly improved.
Children’s FMS post-test scores were higher than the pre-test.
These results might increase by this Let’s Move project because of an abundant of FMS and physical activity practices because this project had provided many different physical activities for children to play. These activities let children practice using different FMS and balls. Undoubtedly, children did more physical activity could increase their fundamental movement skills. This Let’s Move project reached the study goal of increasing children's ability to FMS.
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However, this report did not analyze the gender and age differences because of the not main purpose of this study.
Table 4.2 Paired t-test of FMS performance between pre-test and post-test scores
Item Group M N SD t-value
Locomotor skills Pre-test 29.32 22 9.06 -9.18*
Post-test 38.32 22 9.27
Object Control skills Pre-test 19.82 22 7.56 -6.89*
Post-test 28.82 22 8.96
Total FMS score Pre-test 49.14 22 15.53 -10.70*
Post-test 67.14 22 17.77
*p<0.05
4.3 Discussion
A. The acquirement of knowledge of fundamental movement skills
According to the results of this project, this project was showed a success of children’s acquirement of knowledge of fundamental movement skills. In my observation, children learned the nomenclature of FMS by using fundamental movement 3 part cards, and physical exercise. They heard the name of FMS and saw them how to manipulate, and used their lambs to work out. I believed this was the main reason why children’s knowledge of FMS improved a lot from pre-test to post-test.
The knowledge of ball also had increased many percentages, especially “cloth ball” from 0% to 92.6%, these results must relate to the experiences accumulation because this project designed was to provide children to learn not only through three part cards but also other relative activity, such as ball sewing, balls’ mystery bag, color ball sorting, sports story-telling cards, ball object box, basketball pre-math, numerals and soccer counters (numeration 0-9), and the physical activity by using real balls.
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Like Montessori’s theory said that children have sensory impression and the absorbent mind (Montessori, 1967), which meant children like a sponge to absorb knowledge from the environment, especially they had explored by perceptual or sensory. During this absorbent mind, children were in the most sensitive periods (Montessori, 1967), children’s interests could help focused on developing a particular skill or knowledge from what they see, hear, touch, smell, and taste.
I thought this was the another reason why children’s the knowledge of FMS improved a lot because of their interest of play. In my observation, I found the children who likes to have physical gross motor activities were showed better FMS knowledge and skills in both of pre- test and post-test results. “Follow the child” as Montessori (1967) said that is the key factor to attract children’s learning motivation. I thought because “Let’s move” project was designed on the observation of what they need, they showed higher motivation to participate in physical activities. For example, in our classroom, we did not provide pre-math activity for child and few multi-person activity in any work, so that when I putted out the basketball pre- math and designed the variation activity for several children to work together was the reason why this work popular in the classroom.
For one more instance, I believed the Montessori’s theories of that children be exposed to beautiful things and beauty in nature and had the sensitive period in the 0 to 6, so I used the sensory impression (Montessori, 1967) in the material called “balls’ mystery bag,” which was a two-person game, and also popular in the classroom, especially for younger children, they were loving to work with this activity. Children enjoyed in this work was related to its point of interest (Rigg, 2013), the materials were beauty, reality, and had different balls with color, texture, size, and shapes.
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From my observation, I found this project was popular for children, but it still can be improved and modified several things. I thought each child should have real freedom to choose these works to do it and without permission from teachers to invite classmates to work together. I observed children developed their self-discipline, respect, communication,
patience, sportsmanship, and friendship from this Let’s Move Project. Children was not only doing physical activities together, but also learning several materials which I created with 2 to 4 persons or independent. In my original idea, I thought children could use the activities actively and freely to invite some children to work with him/her, which I thought the children were a real need. However, my lead teacher thought children should do the thing she
scheduled for them, so she limited children to choose only one material of the Let’s Move once per day. I thought this situation limited the children freedom for working. In the future, when I become a Montessori teacher, I will encourage children to choose a work what they really want to do in the classroom.
Besides, I thought the pre-math activities are important in math area, we ought to put some pre-math materials in the classroom. My pre-math material is interested to children, and they loved to work on it. But I thought it should modify a little bit because the older children, in my intern classroom, already learned mathematical works in advanced level or elementary level, their arithmetic is also advanced. I might add more dices in this work or add some numeral arithmetic cards for extensions in the future, so that this pre-math activity can suit for different levels children to adjust their learning levels. These revises are the
B. The acquirement of locomotor skills and object control skills
Table 4.2 showed that children’s locomotor skills and object control skills had significantly improved on both scores from pre-test to post-test. The main reason why
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children’s scores of FMS increasing was that experiences accumulated. Montessori (1964) believed “learning by doing” could help children to build up their ability and self-discipline (Montessori, 1964) as well. This project provided many physical exercises for children to practices so that children’s scores of locomotor skills and object control skills increasing.
Montessori thought that the movement and physical activity not only is the functional incarnation of the creative energy children possess but also is an essential factor for
intellectual growth (Bergeron, 2000). Physical activity provides was the special point in this project and it was the most crucial point of interest for children, which is the key point why children’s scores of FMS all improved, I believed.
In addition, this study’s main purpose was to compare the differences between pre-test and post-test of locomotor skills and object control skills, so it did not compare the children’s gender and age differences in this report. Maybe continuous researches could explore these differences.
After 3 months of project implementation, I deeply trusted Montessori's theory “follow the child" and "provide the freedom for them (Montessori, 1972) ". I observed the children's behaviors became independent and respectful when they worked with the materials of Let's Move, and many children gradually became self-discipline in the classroom. In the Let's Move project, children were not only learning the fundamental movements but also attempt to do work with classmates. I saw the younger children could cooperate with older children, also observed older children could teach and assist younger children actively. They learned from each other from these two to four persons' works, and from the group physical extension activities. I believe most children not only get knowledge of the fundamental movements but also know how to operate the more fluent skills of fundamental movements. They also learned
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the sport materials’ names, included 8 kinds of balls, and realized how to use this material with fluent movements when they played.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.1 Conclusion
This Let’s Move project, which used Montessori teaching philosophy and principles, is really successful and this project provides children to develop their fundamental movement skills and related sports knowledge. Follow children's interests can help increase children's learning motivation. I’m thankful my lead teacher gives me some suggestions for this project.
I think I will continue to modify the materials of this project, someday, I believe this project can still benefit on children’s development.
5.2 Suggestion
However, this study didn’t have a control group, so it did not easy to prove children’s improvement of FMS was influenced by Let’s Move project. Children’s FMS development might not influence by the Let’s Move project; it might influence physical maturity. I would like to suggest future research to include a control group to identify how much influence would benefit children FMS.
5.3 Limitations and Future Directions
This Let’s Move project only had small participants to show the enhancements of FMS.
Even the result was significant, but it could not be an inference to a general situation. Further research could include more sample size and more strict research design, I thought could make a better teaching project and confirm the effect of the FMS project to preschoolers.
Moreover, I did not design the cultural material in this project, to consider more cultural special elements, and to combine within this kind of project, it might be interesting.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
Three-part Cards – Fundamental Movement Skills
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36
37
38
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APPENDIX II
Three-part Cards – Balls
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41
42
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APPENDIX III
Physical Exercises
Basketball Soft Baseball
Soccer Cloth Ball Hula Hoop
Air Rod
Plastic Balls
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Basketball
Picture 1: Children practiced bouncing a basketball staying at same place.
Picture 2: Children practiced bouncing a basketball with walking and shooting.
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Soft Baseball
Picture 3: Children practiced striking a soft baseball.
Picture 4: Children practiced striking a hard baseball.
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Soccer
Picture 5: Children practiced kicking a soccer ball at same place.
Picture 6: Children practiced kicking a soccer ball with running.
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Cloth Ball
Picture 7: Children practiced throwing with cloth balls.
Picture 8: Children practiced rolling with cloth balls.
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Hula Hoop
Picture 9: Children practiced shaking a hula hoop.
Picture 10: Children practiced shaking a hula hoop with walking
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Picture 11: Children practiced jumping with hula hoop and rabbit’s game.
Picture 12: Children practiced running with hula hoop and shark’s game.
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Air Rod
Picture 13: Children practiced jumping and galloping with an air rod.
Picture 14: Children practiced throwing and catching with an air rod.
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Plastic Balls
Picture 15: Children practiced throwing with plastic balls.
Picture 16: Children practiced rolling with plastic balls.
