2 nd Language Learning
Chapter 2
Lecture 4
2 nd Language Learners
• All 2
ndlanguage learners have already acquired one language. Therefore…
• Some researchers believe that this is an advantage, because with that 2
ndlanguage learners will already have an idea on how languages work.
• Other researchers believe that having knowledge of another language may lead 2
ndlanguage learners to
make incorrect guesses on how the 2
ndlanguage works.
Differences between children &
adults in learning a language
• Differences between children and adults in learning a language can be summarized in 3 main points:
1. Cognitive differences.
Children do not have the cognitive maturity and metalinguistic awareness that adults have.
This cognitive ability allows adults to engage in discussions about languages. Whereas children do not have this ability.
Cognitive maturity: The ability to engage in problem-solving, deduction, and complex memory tasks.
Metalinguistic awareness: The ability to treat language as an object.
Differences between children &
adults in learning a language
2. Attitudinal and cultural differences:
- Most children language learners are willing to try to use the language even if their proficiency level is quite - They are allowed to be silent until ready to speak. low.
- They mostly practice language through songs and games and with that their voices are blended with others.
Adults are reluctant when trying to use the language.
They also find it stressful when they are unable to express
themselves correctly.
Differences between children &
adults in learning a language
3. Time in contact with language:
- Children spend hours in contact with their first language.
They are also exposed to the language in other social
settings other than the home, for example the playground, the classroom and even the television.
- Exposed to a large range of discourse type.
- Adults receive far less exposure to the language. Their exposure is only limited to the language classes they take.
- Exposed to a smaller range of discourse type. Usually formal discourse.
Differences between children &
adults in language learning
• There is one similarity between all language learners regardless of age (adults & children) which is, exposure to modified or adapted speech.
• Similar to child-directed speech (last lecture), there is foreigner talk.
• Foreigner talk: modified or simplified language that
native speakers address to 2
ndlanguage learners.
Studying the language of 2 nd language learners
• We have seen in Ch. 1 that there are developmental sequences for children who are learning a language.
• Is this the same for 2
ndlanguage learners?
• Does their 1
stlanguage affect the acquisition of their 2
ndlanguage?
• Researchers started to observe the errors of 2
ndlanguage
learners in order to determine their progress. For example,
the less the errors are the better the progress. However,
this is not a satisfactory explanation.
Studying the language of 2 nd language learners
• The reason for that is because sometimes an increase in an error can be a sign of progress.
• For example, 2
ndlanguage learners usually learn the irregular past tense forms of
common verbs before they learn to apply the
regular past –ed marker.
Studying the language of 2 nd language learners
• Meaning a learner who says “I buyed a bus ticket”
may know more about English than one who says
“I bought a bus ticket”.
• We cannot conclude that the one who says
(bought) would use the regular past –ed marker
where it is required. However, the learner who
says (buyed) provides evidence of the knowledge
of a systematic aspect of English.
Studying the language of 2 nd language learners
• From the previous example, we go into details about approaches invented by researchers to study the errors of language learners.
• These approaches are:
1. Contrastive analysis (CA) 2. Error analysis
3. Interlanguage
Contrastive analysis
• Contrastive analysis hypothesis:
Errors are assumed to be results of transfer from the learner’s 1
stlanguage.
Transfer/Interference:
The influence of a learner’s 1
stlanguage knowledge in the 2
ndlanguage.
(It is now preferred to be called ‘Cross-linguistic
influence’.)
Contrastive analysis
• However, detailed analysis of language
learners’ errors could not always be explained by this theory.
• For ex, according to the CAH, French speakers
learning English and English speakers learning
French would make errors on parallel linguistic
features. However, that was not the case.
Contrastive analysis
• For ex,
• In simple English sentences, direct objects whether nouns or pronouns come after the verb. (The dog eats the cookie)
`
• In French, direct objects that are nouns follow the verb. (The dog eats the cookie)
However, direct objects that are pronouns precede the verb. (The dog it eats)
According to your understanding of CAH, how would the
errors of speakers of these languages be explained?
Contrastive analysis
• The CAH would predict that a native speaker of French might say (the dog it eats) when learning English.
• After analyzing their speech, however, it was found that French-speaking learners of
English, seeing no evidence that English direct object pronouns precede verbs, do not use
this pattern from their 1
stlanguage.
Error analysis
• Because many aspects of learners’ language couldn’t be explained by the CAH, a different approach was taken- error analysis.
• Error analysis: is detailed descriptions of the errors 2nd language learners make.
• It divides the errors in to errors & mistakes. Also divides errors into different categories.
• It does not predict learners’ errors, as the CAH, but it sought to discover & describe different kinds of errors in an effort to try and understand how learners process 2nd language data.
Interlanguage
• Interlanguage:
A learner’s developing 2
ndlanguage knowledge. It may have characteristics of the learner’s 1
stlanguage, characteristics of the 2
ndlanguage and some characteristics that are general in all interlanguage systems.
Interlanguage is characterized by 3 points:
1. Systematic. (It has rules. Not necessarily correct rules, but has rules.)
2. Dynamic (Although systematic, its rules may change depending on the input the learner receives)
3. Variable (it depend on the input the learner receives)
