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Improving educational outcomes: Implementation of Response to Intervention for Monitoring Students' academic progress by Curriculum Based Measurement

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Zaed Mohammad Albattal(

King Saud University

(Received 22/01/2018; accepted 27/04/2018)

Abstract: The aim of this study was to review the research literature on the implementation of response to Intervention (RTI) for monitoring students' academic achievement progress by using curriculum based measurement (CBM) and ultimately for improving educational outcomes. RTI is a systematic and data-driven process to ensure that all students benefit from quality instruction. It uses tools such as CBM to identify these students' needs. The CBM referes to standardized procedures used to measure students' real achievement on curriculum taught in the classroom. It relies on direct observation to monitore students' achievement as a base for collecting instructional information. Progress monitoring focuses on educational decision making with respect to basic academic skills development at the elementary grades. Progress monitoring is conducted frequently to estimate students' rates of improvement and determine students who are not demonstrate adequate progress to classroom instruction and therefore different or more intensive instruction can be delivered across the RTI tiers to improve their achievement. Many educators believe that student progress should be monitored frequently in order to provide data about their current instructional procedures. Currently, the use of RtI for progress monitoring and decision making when instructional change is required have received an increasing attention.

Keywords: Educational intervention, Multitiered instruction, Curriculum-based assessment, educational outcomes.

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#3 N; A+OX X Z [ $DE 12/ C?MH 1Mq fX X

(10)

*>3 ;¡Rb;)3

$T .V }2 1:; NB;²

b: D P 9C#J; K 1Mq *E r$

(Cottrell, 2014; Samuels, 2008)

o

9C#J; ½ , 1:; ;)< VQE em p¶ k;3 |C/ p¶ ¼CIq; ^#

;).

*>3

C S# G A<G ^# ,

*9M3

1CB;

bt{ AC A<G ^#

false positives

NTyCIqE N; ^9 9C#J;

A ¬4 ^?

A/V7 QC N3 N;

*9M

.(Bradley, Danielson, & Doolittle, 2005,

p. 486)

) Km /3 1:; ;)< =>?@ I;

C S# 67 G A<G bI@ 67 ^#

%4.5

67 %2.5

K# UV

A.) 10 (Bollman,

Silberglitt, & Gibbons, 2007)

o

Q}3 C $m3

(Hughes & Dexter,

2011)

Ce/ S 1:; ;)< =>?@ cm 67 k; a

(Over identification)

3> 9C#J; UV

A

A/V7 ^# K L; ,N;

^2; )m I;)< =;@ µm P 3 PlG2 L?MH 1CyR;3 iM9 P

~) s # :

−1

;)< , #I;Q NCCB; A3mX X

. UV L.2 WCB 1l# ;1:;Y p¶ c}E ,ST

K:H NCCB; =>d. @$B# a{CR;#u o

−2

;CV a+ > Q$E cB; 9C#J; _C`u Z h

# 1}q c#B;C) \; 3n Z [ o

−3

K;Q# ^# FB;@< 1l# CQ$; A$B

iH UV B4 /; 1:; ;)< , :«

L?MH o

−4

]$; NBE , l K;Q , ,

^# 3 V x.V S;.C) 1:; ;)< =>?@

C 67 cB;.C) ^9 9C#J;

o

*> 67 4

: =>?@ I;) ¾ X [

|b; d 1Mq 1 BDM 1:; ;)<

CG ;C}#H aR; A< , P@B _#

Mj

c@/

NCE c3 1b~ <[

(No Child Left

Behind Act - NCLB, 2002)

, I;) W$ UV

C))H S. $C;: C?V xC+; C? 4 /y b ]CB# I;)3

(valid screening

measures)

B; 2/#3 ,

(Monitoring progress)

R;

]$; ^# { +G , N 9 9C#J;

{Mh X [ o L? 1C pq3 67

1:; ;)< cm

, 5/3 NV 9C?E 1M iDV7 , 1#H Lh X X A;Q UVH x?; F x+; 9

(Burns,

Appleton, & Stehouwer, 2005)

o

|D. 9 ^#3 :

V L2.

NC; W$# UY

(11)

c UV NtB ]$; NBE aC/ 6;E cmX b: D P 9C#J; _C?f L?Y L?MH

(Council for Exceptional Children-

CEC, 2007)

o

l FjQ +7 :

?B; 2/? yB #

/.# N;C) FjQ 9 UV +§

AbE q

C±m ¢CE3 ,Tyty: M>3 ,B; 2/#Z ¦

° dM ,T#I;) :

"PG

Q :

#LL LL3

Progress monitoring)

=:

67 B; 2/# pqE

c? I;Q L.}E NCCBEY

3m ,ST. pCE 67 +G , @M # >7 R; xE@C ¦

$; ~ 3m , ]

(Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006, p.

o94)

NCCB; Ai+7 ^# V? B; 2/# 1l¨3u ² [X ]$; ^# 9C#J; ab;) K# R; #I;QX X

r$ 1yb , o

UV ?t/ )$d?M B; 2/# 3 ^}?3X X X X CV4 NCCBE3 9C?; 1Cyz NCCB; L? cY

$;

1:; 3m ]

~) B; ·;I WCB XX

9C?;

(Fuchs & Fuchs, 2008; Johnson, et al.,

2006)

>7 ; cM # >7 R; B; 2/# kª

]$; . C;Q 9C?;

, )$d 89 1 ® X

1:; ;)< =>?. CQCt$ a{C#u u

(Stecker,

Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2008)

o cm L. x@¿4 E )$® 67 BE # ` 3X X

K iH , B; 2/ cm NT#{ P N9C#JE Ap; C)Q3 / |t4 WCB?

Q;} N; C;@ Q UV mDE L; bCbDX X X aCG BD L 89 13 , # N; 9u + 9; UV FyR

(feedback)

#J

5/ , ]$; C?V UV AJ; F:

).

(Hosp, et al., 2007)

o

;)< , NCCB; AC?V ^# pl} c7 B; 2/# 1:;

o N; L; A@C2 NVE3

T`[

~) E , P? T+ C? 89 X NC?y

A+C;G< 3> 9C#J; z3 ,}2 1:;²

o xBCBz N; 9 B; 2/# BE3¦ [ X² [

A$B >w , P? VQE CyCIqE A##u n

S#@ FG ,

Fl 1C2) UV :

1B@3 *z

B2D ^# 9C?;

B2D 67 1

o2 (Fuchs &

Fuchs, 2006)

o

ST. UV L.2 WCB ]CB# ]b@ I;QE3 ;]$; ^# b;I AB2D V 9C#J; 4M _#

CG B ² aG# am ³Jl AB2D , WCB 9u u [

^# 1M i+ ,L?V W)m A>3 BC/3 V43À X u u ¯@m V B; 2/#3 1#q b S#

CQ$;

(Shinn, 2003)

o p; 9 CG iÁ3

(12)

]$E 67 c+; ^9 9C#J;4 ,NCCB; $}E {CME lMmu

B2D 3

em c+; ,u 2/# 67

¯2)H , PE# 3m a# ,$};# 1}q NT#BEu o

#m

C47 Q$E cB; ^9 9C#J;© u

B2D

2

¯2)m P ,1/m $}; NT#BE 2/# 67 c+;

:Â3 o _# C4M #BE c3 ^9 9C#J; #mu u [

]$;Y B2D

,1C/ $}; NT;2/# N;;4[ 1

p @$B AdCCBE FJ: ^# 3m T 1M a#h u r$ , A# _ $m 3m ³J¤ ,4T;QX

(Bender, & Shores, 2007)

o

C;V I;QE B; 2/# cm ^# N¶ UV3© [ µ¿4 ,N; A D 9C?; im ;h

em ^}?u 1yb 9C#JE _C` ; I;Q E cm [

r$

o _CD;Q \; 3

k i4 9C#J;X [ 4T;Q pX

(benchmark

goals)

TBB cm 67 N Q 9 kH m , cm $3¸ ^#3 ,r$ µ , 89C#JE[ 9:m ^# ]$; F , #I;Q 2/ am ^}?;EX

$};# 1}q xQ$E N; ® C4M3 av2# .CV[ o

|Bz3

UV C.2 A)CB A2D; 89 ST.

(Hosp et al.,

2007; Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2003)

o

TUQ :

# 3 ^(G >_I$ :

WCB i+ B

, 1:; S# v2# +;@ ST. UV L.2u u Y K3+ A> c}E A)C/ NB; 8V7 NE B4

]$; C? at43 ,

E)C/ cm L. ® M> dM ,x

clG2

(Deno, 1989; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett,

1990) et al., 2007;

Hosp,

y;E cm L2. h

CE« ¼ty

:

o1

ST. £2E$<

: _/E ST. £2E$< yB [

W$ ® A.C 9:m , l?;3 ,. ?T# @7² [ ,C)$ Fyb , 9C#J;

9C#J; _e cm3

ST. Ab# , $2;:J

(Curriculum)

9

8)$

o o2

]$; ¤ ;3 C)Q

: WCB c} cm

mDE L; bCbD Ap;3 ^QR; C)Q Ã # / Ä? cM >7 9C?; cm m ,9C?; K;Q# UVu [ [ { K cm x?# _) c}C) N; , mDE L; a

xE+$ UV ¯2)m 1Mh o

o3

$};3 aV

: WCB UV {CM N; cm

^}? m ;B; 2/# .Q;C 5/ $3# _# $};

,B; K# FG A<# $y;)< x#I;) iH K;Q# FG A@C *9M3 o

o4

_+ C}¦ Z X h ² X X :

} A$2;:< ]CBE² X X _+ Ch

3m ? V? *R? £2E$< 9C?; im aB £B@ R; I;Q E dM ,Lby K;Q[ 9C#J; K =C;G<3 o

(13)

ZUQ :

# 3 #1! FG :

W$ 5@M

− CB; CG. ^#

− 1CyR; A$2;: UV ?;E

_+ $C#¦ Z XZ ..B

(standardized norm-

referenced achievement tests)

89 BE CG ;

. ¼IE A+$ W$? A$2;:<h T

o

*> 67 4

: ^# plM Cb;Q

L; 3m µe L; AdCCB; ^# NC; L?#Y

; im NCCB; S. ??y# $D 9C#J

o , #m

A> J T+ c¿4 ^ 5/

AdCCBE I;) 67 W$ 54 G W)Hh 4T;Q pX X

(benchmark assessments)

,

9C#J; cM # >7 R; r$ i.¤m a$};3 D A/; i4 R@ ¢CRy |D UV o

(Stecker, Lembke, & Foegen, 2008)

o

emu B; 2/# I;) C±m ^# ~)

ST. UV L.2 WCB A@C :

m E V c@/

NCE c3 1b~

(NCLB)

3> 4H NCE c@/3

$D A/Vh

(IDEA)

WCB C±m UV Mm c9 ,h

ST. UV L.2Y x?B; *>3 ;B; 2/ a M

K ,} B; R; L?V W)m A> B~u 9C?;

(Shinn, 2007)

o

B; 2/# I;) cm L3 K:m C±m .3 9C#J; BE NCCB; 1:; ;)< C) , k; NE ^9 L?MH b: D P

) NTCV

z , N? at4 3> 1#q b ~

xC+E , *9M3 ,C4M #BE cBB < ^9 9C#J;u u ^# c3Cb;Q < ^9 9C#J; Vb ]$; S#

C;V< ]$;

) 2017 , Hughes

&

Dexter

o (

emu

gGJ#3 P?? $}; WCB ¢?QX X

;3 NTQ$E c+; # c?; 9C#J; cm M

ST. A2D;? i4 x;4 o

cm *> |CBR;3

NBE _# |4 cm3 ,a?;Q# C?V WCB c}

+ 9;

o

9; x?BE , WCB CV43 a+ E3 A + N ¢CE FJ: ^# $b +²

y p¶ 9C#J;

RCR

(Ronan, 2015)

cm NT ^?4 ,

RCR c}; Nª +7 ¼B. ># 9C#J; k o

B; 2/# ^# T` N; L; A# E *93[ N; UV 9C#J; ^# 1M aVQ# , C±H WCB A## BE CG ;]$; UV P?3² cBE7 K# FG C?M A@C *9M3 ,9C?;

z ^}? L; 9C?; iD:m FG A##

aVQ# 67 4 ,x 2)m3 D ¯@ 1CR;

V? 1e4H ]$; ~ m 4# , P?

L; _C #3 9C#J; x4 #3 ,9C#J; ^# .C#

]$E aV7 =;z

Ronan, 2015

o ^# plM K3

(14)

a{M ]$; A¬C , 9C#J; BE cm P?

FG A@C NBE $?;) / cm C NTQ$E Ai+7 o

(Stecker & Fuchs, 2000)

l FjQ +7 :

?ST. UV L.2 WCB #

ST. UV L.2 WCB |l2@

(CBA)

1?V ^V

c;) x _D

.

(Stan Deno)

µ , 8J#3

3 ·. cB AC.C2)

AC.C@dl EQC.C# T# ,

A F , ³R2

A/V7 N;

(Minnesota

Institute for Research on Learning Disabilities) (Deno, 1985, 2003; Hosp et al., 2007)

9 V7 ^# k¡ cM /3 WCB ^# ¯.

UV P? aVQ# x@ ^# WC/ g@ DE BE 2/ TVe:73 ]$; C? CDI; , CT.# BD N9C#J; r$ 1CyR; K;Q#

AC3 aiB 1l# ;C))H A$T F Å;} p2;3 iJ#3

(Shinn, 2013)

5@M CG ;

s dM ,WCB 9 , D £3- :

m o A2l3 y NQ; cm o

o DCQ c} cm uJV43 u

G3 cÂ , o

= o b}; 1C/ c} cm

8$}E h.Q; CR o

r$ ST. , 9C?; im clG2 I;)3 _ E WCB?M

dependent measure

CV4 NCCB;

AJ:;

o Æ bl}# A+# 3X h AC

NT@ A/ C2 A$2;: ^# 8JE #3 B Q L;3 ST. , X.h.B iH ]CB# R; LlR2

y3 K;R $T7 _# _bE# A2l NQ;EZ ¦ h i.2 3 L}R

(Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, &

Jenkins, 2001; Fuchs & Deno, 1992)

o

^# V? 67 ST. UV L.2 WCB pq3[

xtm UV i. 9C?; A$T# ¼RbE L; Ai+u r$ ST. Ab B43 sbu Z X

(Stecker, 2007)

o

x@ ST. UV L.2 WCB k em[

?; i+7

av2 gGJ UVX X

(direct observation)

^3E3

*> >w3 ,r$ ST. , xCyz3 9C?; im B; A$B >w A# _?f ))mu ]$; C?

Deno, 1989, P.41

o ^?e;3

L ,CQCt$ Ad) ³J¤ ST. UV L.2 WCB :

cm

cm3 ,9C?; ST.# ^# ¼I;QE $2;:< ¬)m[ aV7

NCCB; A## cm3 ,5/3 m , ³z $2;:<

CQ$; A$B ¶Cy I;QE[

(Tucker, 1987)

o

. ¢3m3

(Deno, 1989)

UV L.2 WCB cm Y

ST.

^# ; CBM

^# DCQ V?

X.h.B Ai+

P.41)

; WCB Ai+7 E CG Y [X

UV L.2 xRCRyE3 $2;:< NBE .?e;3 ST.² X

TC4 K a# 1M , aG3 LT4 ,..B# xE+$ pQbE3[

$2;:<

o 9C?; BE 2/ C?V 52l# i+7 3 © X Z [

(Stecker, 2007)

o

(15)

UV L.2 WCB , $3¥ b P.B; 3[

ST.

; UV vj?M xE@C A2¤3 cde cBE7

9C?;

, V V?3 b A@C @$B? dQ3

5/

, CR p DE 1CTQE3 o

(Deno, 2003)

3 bE ST. UV L.2 WCB Ai+7 UV |2D.

¢Dy

^h.B

(standardized)

,

±3 :

−1

TV2E P; aG# BD K $2;:< cmX h X Z [

.V

¢CRy;3 |C2D;

o

−2

$C# cmu

iH A} , 1l?;

K+ /

W)m UV i. A+$ pQbE h.Q; CR xQC) Eu ?;# L+#X X Y

(validated referent). (Hosp et al.,

2007)

o ^# V? ST. UV L.2 WCB ^?e;3u

ª# , apyB3 ..B A$2;:<

E BC/ ^# 3

|t/ ]Ç 67 apyB A$2;:< TCV |D3[ o

probes)

DE3 ,TRCRyE3 T?BE VÈ3 TQ [

;O $2;: 1M3 ,¯2)m 1M PE# 3m aG3 a#

y , É4}# x.}3¦ o

(Clarke, 2009; Shinn,

1998)

C@C ª+$ 1Cl¨3 ,$}E ^}? \; 3© o

T#I;) ^}? ,T) pQbE B~ NBE C;.3 , CQ$; NªJ:E CV4 NCCB; P? 12/ ^#X Z¦ ¦ C?MH A$T

Shinn, 2013

o

L.2 WCB , A$2;:< K; ¼I;Q3 aR C)$ S. ^# ST. UV

o Ai+7 cH3

2;:< ¢CRyE3 NBE K;Q# cH3 ,p;E < $

^}? x@¿4 ,5/ V TQb@ 1gE $2;:< ^}? dM ,ST. UV L.2 WCB A+$ @$B#

|GJ 1CyR; \ 1CyR; @$B#

o 2¶3u N;

WCB A+$ 5) 67 ³Jl );# =I;) \ iH K;Q# R; ST. UV L.2

(Stecker,

et al., 2008)

o P ¢3m3

(Shinn, 1988)

NE L; ]CB cm

1Cyz NCCB; ST. UV C.2# ]CB?M z L ,9C?;

: −1

aiB : B L; Ad} V QG

aG3 BC/ a4 , ¢CR 1}q 9C?;

o

−2

iJ#

: k3 1QQE V QG[

} 3m ¢CRy ¢CR 1}q CtJ#7 ;} Ad©

1M ?} iJ#73 P;BC/ a4 FJ:

c¤ no 7

−3

AC

: ;} A@ V QG

Lby K;Q , Q 1tQ# ^# ¢CR 1}q P;BC/ a4 FJ:

o

−4

Å;} p2;

: 3m Ad} V QG

/ ³J¤ a4 FJ: ;} k3

|t o

¬4 5z ST. UV C.2 A)CB Ng# =$.E3 _+ L} WCB² o

+E L; ª> LT4 A}R #mh

(16)

x4m 3m ST. , o

/J~7 ¡ /JV < L3u K;Q?

x C.# 5QC3 ,^:« 9C#J; im

(Hosp et al.,

2007)

o CB A2D;? ]CB 89 LbE3[ X¦X .?e;3 ,W

s # :

<3m

u :

A2l3 y ^?e;E C.4 bM TgE o

C@¤u : P.BE Ai+7 BE

m : A}h CR

))m T#I;) ^}?u A$B >w<

o

l¤u : ¯@m ^# $/ ^# lMm >w , aCb#

C , Q? A$B

1988 (Shinn,

,

, l?;3

^# 1M :

,C.y;3 ,G3 ,b

CV43 iH BE 2/#3 ,]$; AC?V CDw3 S#@

Salvia & Ysseldyke, 2004

o dM

P 9C#J; A+C;G i4 _CD;QE µm UV A+C;G< 3> 9C#J;3

^# x {C?;E ;i) GX¦

A+C;G< UV {CME

b o L? R2 52¤m /3

Fuchs, & Deno,

1992; Shinn, 2013) (Deno, 1985, 1989, 2003;

UV

2BE BV ¤J¤ K#

u x@ ^# :Â NCCBE + < x@m ,X

|CBz , xE$3 ST. UV L.2 WCB ae#

B; Ng?4 ;M9 b@Â A2D;Z ² < K:H AdCC

z ^# ..}? 9 R. UV ~Q2 y;E CtB; K;Q#

(automaticity)

im , 9C#J; K

im UV a$B , CtB; C±m 1l?;E CG ;T T.BEm / 9C?; cm 52l ® ;M9 T c3 a$T[ [ T.# ^}¨3h

(Hosp et al., 2007)

o

_ FjQ +7 :

=>?@ I;Q CM

?B; 2/ 1:; ;)<

¢CE 2 , N;C) FjQ 9 UV +§

NCCB; Ai+7 ^# PV@ P b

1#q b

B; 2/#3 =>?@ |C2DE q/.# N¤ ,·;O 1}q

UV *>3 ;B; 2/ 1:; ;)<

R.

°«

:

"PG

Q:

B; 2/# 1 B# 1#q b :

.

^V A## NBE T.}? NCCB; ^# aV ¯@m ,A$T3 k$ cBE7 CG ^# 9C?; G ,NCCB; ^# V.;# Ai+7 P? I;)<3

@CGm N¡2;)3u c¿4 1#q b B; 2/#

b;

2/# , dT# PV. ^9 P |© u Z [ X [Y B;

o 3 cQ@+ $m3 Â

c3:

(Johnson, et al.,

2006)

7 NCCB; ^# PV. ^9¡ a{C? ¼ty 6²

F3f g@

:1

(17)

7P

;

=:1 :@

# 3P 3`

a 3` :@

Universal Screening

3

#

Progress Monitoring

_?;

)$ 9C#JE _C`

1yb ap V?

9C?;

A#I;)<

# C?Mm A$T#

a C?Mm a$T#X h

$};

.) 1M Tm 3

T ,LV2)m ,L#Y Y Y

{CM )$ 9C#JE _C`

1yb ,9C?;

]$;

)$

3 1yb ST. A$/

1:; FJ: ^#

]$; ,ST.

|C2D;

1:; CDI; 63m aD:

+3 $?;)<

1#q b pq3[

(Universal Screening)

67

NCCB;3 ,_Ê NB; {C?; WCB ^# ¯@

ST. ]C) ; I;Q3 ,?V ?tJ A$T?© , ]$;3 aibM K;Q# z3 r$ 1yb

C?MH A< , 9C?;

o 1#q b B3

− V 1}q −

, ,A# ³J¤ )$ 9C#JE _C?f

r$ ,µ3 )33

(National Research

Council on Learning Disabilities, 2006)

o 3

1#q b Ë.V Gm

aD3 1:; ;)<

AJ}q# ^# c@ ^9 9C#J; kT;)< 63H NtB NC; ]$; c33{ #.V N; ,Y [ h L? c UV

(Jenkins, et al., 2007)

o 2/# #m

9C#J; im N ]CB #.V ³R;4 B;X [ P ,Ng;.# 1}q L?MH

± ,

(Fuchs, &

Fuchs, 2003)

:

−1

1}q c3Cb;Q 9C#J; cM # >7 z

\ ]$; S#@ ^# NtJ#

o −2

^9 9C#J; CV4 lMm Ì$E S#@ i. u

,C;V< ]$; S#@ ^# C4M p¶ Nª47 c}E ^# 1/m sb ?. F# c} #.V *> N;3

#

D ?. F o

TUQ:

2/ 1:; ;)< =>?@ |C2DE

B;

:

? z 9C?;

h

D

b:

L?MH D)

]CB#

b ,1#q c¿4

x#BE

cm

/X , B2D 63H

^#

;)<

1:;

(Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2007)

3 , c$B

,)$ K;Q# UV iÆ _/; K 8mh CV4 UV N}R WCB 9 N I;Q3X CG ;b 9C?; A+C;G B ]$;

k) L; A$T , \ 9C?; im K;Q# N[ kH z3 ,C)$ .Q *E FJ: T?;

yR;

, µ T¶ 9C?; =; L; CCX X 9C?; 8{. cm 9 B; F# ]C) E3[ [

kH 89 |CBR;

o

(18)

N; F# 3 Y X [

(learning rate)

iH K;Q#3

performance level

A#? PC))m ^$y#

w , #I;QX *>3 ;a?;Q CQ$; A$B >

A}R A@C2 LV@ @$B? h o

N; F# pq3

xtm K;Q? @$B# 5/ V 9C?; 1Cyz ?@ 67u x@/m K 1CyR; ?. 3m | QY

(National

o

Association of State Directors of Special Education, 2006)

/# 67 iH K;Q# pq d.C ,

@$B# 1CyR; m , L2Q. 9C?;u _/; 1CyR; h

(Darrow, 2012)

o

A$B >w .V3 :

i{+H Nm Gm c¿4

c} /3 ,xCV 9C?; im @$B *R zY BD. 3m y 3m 1yb 9C#J; iH );#

; 2).# } C?Cu © o

C+# V? _# @$B E3Y [X

C

)$ K;Q# UV _# @$B ^# Q@m

A$2;:< , $C?M #I;Q C.~ AV?X ..B

(Deno, 1989)

o em .3u @§ A} h

T#I;) ^}? L?MH ST. , a+# B;3 o

3 $ W)m . ¢2y 2). @$B z

A$B >w3 }GH o

$C;: B; 2/# , 2 c}E3X X K;Q#

|C2D;

ST. K;R l? A$2;:< V73²

z3 VB +$

C) +$

¤Jl A$2;:J 63H

, S#@

,Ì$;

µ xBCBz L2. 9 K 1~ k¡ _33 K apy/ kH *9M3 ,r$

o .M M>3

^ 3

(Luckner, & Bowen, 2010)

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(20)

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(baseline data)

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American Institutes of Research (AIR), The Center on Response to Intervention. (2012). The essential components of RtI. 1000 Thomas Jefferson St., NW, Washington, DC 20007.

Retrieved from http://www.rti4success. org.

Bender, W., & Shores, C. (2007). Response to Intervention:

A practical guide for every teacher. Thoused Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Bollman, K. A., Silberglitt, B., & Gibbons, K. A. (2007).

The St. Croix River Education District model:

Incorporating systems-level organization and a multitiered problem-solving process for intervention delivery. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M.

VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 319–330). New York: Springer.

Bowman, L. J. (2003). Secondary educators promoting student success: Curriculum-based measurement.

Retrieved from http://coe.ksu.edu/esl/ lasestrellas/