Transport is a major cause of air and noise pollution, and contributes significantly to climate change (Batty et al., 2015; UN, 2013; Banister and Thurstain-Goodwin, 2011; Oskamp, 2000). The transportation system can play a central role in reducing global greenhouse gas emissions (Cass and Faulconbridge, 2016; Schwanen et al., 2011; Cohen, 2010). The context chosen for this study is the "daily commute", the regular, routine and repeated journey (initially associated with public transport but now also with the car) between home and work (Lyons and Chatterjee, 2008).
However, this presents a major challenge, as the use of passenger cars remains an integral part of people's daily lives, offering comfort, flexibility, personal space and a desired status symbol in society (Batty et al., 2015). However, persuading daily migrants to adopt new forms of transport is problematic and rarely an infrastructure issue; other approaches are clearly needed (Liebebroth et al., 2018). However, a systems approach that focuses exclusively on infrastructure to change travel behavior fails to recognize the role of individual agency in explaining commuting patterns (Cass and Faulconbridge, 2016; Mattioli et al., 2016).
Both individualistic and systemic approaches are criticized for their limitations in explaining human (travel) behavior (Liu et al., 2015). Although research recognizes the complex, multifactorial nature of travel choice (Nkurunziza et al., 2012), the existing commuting literature does not adequately address the unique nature of travel (behaviour) (Cass and Faulconbridge, 2016).
Theories of Practice: as an alternative approach
10 Characterizing the complexity of daily commuting routines is challenging because of inter-individual and intra-individual variation from one day to the next (see Lyons and Chatterjee, 2008; Dix et al., 1983). Despite the lack of a unified, practice-based approach, the model of Shove et al. (2012) has proven popular in studying consumption, given its theoretical potential to understand the interconnected nature of consumption activities (Halkier et al. , 2011; for this article we draw on the 3-Element Social Practice Framework proposed by Shove et al. 2012) and additional literature on the terms and forms of practices to build a practice-based 'toolkit' to study commuting.
This includes symbolic meaning, ideas and desires relevant to practice (Shove et al., 2012). For example, allowing children to ride a bicycle to school is perceived by some as risky behavior and poor parenting (Matiolli et al., 2016). The participants were 10 Emiratis and 11 expatriates who were selected using a snowball technique commonly used in qualitative research (Simons et al., 2014).
A directed qualitative content analysis enabled the selection and categorization of the participants' accounts based on the 3-element framework from Shove et al., (2012). Data saturation took place within the first 14 interviews, without new themes, issues, concepts, categories and connections emerging (Hennink et al., 2017).
Findings and Discussion
And one of the people I saw was one of our sponsors, and he said it's funny how you don't have your own car... I think people have a really bad idea about using public transportation.” (Beth, Expat, single). These findings are consistent with research that demonstrates how buses and other means of public transportation are often stigmatized in some cultures (Ory and Mokhtarian, 2005; Vanderbilt, 2010). However, as illustrated in the quotations above, Emirati women were more sensitive to the social stigma associated with public transport (ie “not our prestige”) and further justified this by feeling uncomfortable and unsafe.
However, for the expats using public transport, social stigma and fear-based exclusion did not manifest to the same extent as Emiratis. In addition, emphasis should be given to creative campaigns that address and reconfigure the socio-cultural meanings associated with public transport. If public transport offers the temperature comfort and heat avoidance that the car offers, it can help public transport to recruit more daily commuting practitioners.
As our findings reveal, meanings are particularly important given the associations participants make with different modes of transport, for example how public transport differs from using a private car. 27 In addition, a public transport gender audit could help assess how a local transport provider or local authority meets women's transport needs. 28 symbolic meanings associated with public transport to overcome current barriers to commuting using this mode of transport.
Changes in drivers' perceptions and use of public transportation during freeway closure: Effects of temporal structural change on cooperation in a real-life social dilemma. 1 Aadila F Emirati Married Car Owner; non user of public transport 2 Aaliyah F Emirati Married with children Car owner; non-user of public transport 3 Aaqil M Emirati Married with children Car owner; non-user of public transport 4 Kabir M Emirati Married with children Car owner; non-user of public transport. 6 Mersiha F Emirati Married (new mother) Car owner; non-user of public transport 7 Misha F Emirati Married with children Car owner; not user of public transport 8 Sabiha F Emirati Married with children Car owner; non-user of public transport 9 Samaira F Martied Emirate Car owner; non user of public transport 10 Sameed M Emirati Married with children Car owner; non-user of public transport.
Although the table suggests that most Emiratis are non-users of public transport, there were a few who have used public transport once or twice and draw from this experience to justify their reason for non-use, as shown in the illustrative quotes. 13 Linda K Filipino Single No car; Public transport (taxi more often than bus) 14 Larry M Indian Married with children Car owner; non-user of public transport. 15 Mary F Filipino Single No Car; Uses public transport (bus, metro and taxi) 16 Michelle F USA Married with children Car owner; non-user of public transport.
18 Noreen F Canada Married (empty nesters) Shares car with spouse; non-user of public transport 19 Samuel M Indian Married with children Car owner; non-user of public transport; Woman using public. The scope of the transport system and how it compares to the requirements of other practices. I just haven't (used) the subway, mostly because of the inconvenience of getting from the subway to places where I am.
I don't have public transport nearby, I have to go down 2 kilometers and then take the metro, so it's not efficient, so I have to use my car”.
