VNU Joum al of Science, S o đ a l Sciences a n d H u m an ities 24, No.SE (2010) 18-23
East Asian regionalism from Neo-realist perspective
Pham Van Min*
Colỉege o f Socìal Sciences and Humanities, VNU 336 Nguy en Trai, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, Vietnam
R e c e iv e d 17 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 9
A b s ỉ r a c ỉ . T h is p a p c r is to te st s o m e b a s ic N e o - r e a lis t e x p la n a tio n s fo r r c g io n a lis m b y ta k in g a
case study of East Asian r e g i o n a l i s m emerging a t the end o f 2 0 lh Century and the b e g i n n i n g o f 2 1 sl
Century. In detail, four basic Neo-realist standpoints vvith regard to rcgionalisni will be tested: a)
re g io n a lis m is in ílu e n c e d b y in te m a tio n a l s y ste m , b ) re g io n a l g ro u p in g is in rc s p o n s e to e x te rn a l c h a l l c n g e s o r t h r e a t s , c ) s m a l ỉ e r s t a t c s s e e k r e g i o n a l c o o p c r a t i o n \v it h t h e s t r o n g i n t h e h o p e t h a t
regional inslitutions vvill help thenì constraint it from ĩreedom o f action , and d) the hegemon has a roỉe in promoting regionalism. The paper íỉnds that even though Neo-realism is unable to provide
a c o m p re h e n s iv c in tc rp re ta tio n , it h a s p r o v id e d s o m e im p o rta n t c x p la n a tio n s fo r E a s t A sia n re g io n a lis m . A p p ly in g N c o - r e a lis m to e x p la in E ast A s ia n r e g io n a lis m a s a n In te rn a tio n a l p h e n o m e n o n h a s n o t o n ly lc s te d its re ỉe v a n c e a n d h e lp c d lo b c tte r u n d e r s ta n d it b u t a ls o in v ite d e x p la n a tio n s fro m o th e r th e o rie s to re g io n a lism .
K eyw ords: N c o -re a lis m , E a s t A s ia n R e g io n a lism .
The resurgencc o f regionalism (in this paper, regionalism is understood as regional cooperaỉion and thcy arc used interchar.geably) at the cnd o f the 20th C entury and in the beginning o f the 21sỉ C entury is one o f the most important changes in intem ational system. East Asian regionalism took root in the sam e context. The position and role o f East Asian regionalism have brought up an idea o f the tripartitc world o f \V estem Europe, North America and East Asia [1]. East Asian regionalism has dravvn m uch attention from academ ic com m unity and policy-m akers both inside and outsidc the region. M any have been interested in explaining this trend in East Asia
'T e l.: 84-4-38583798 E-mail: m in@ ussh.edu.vn
from theoretical perspectives. In the sam e vein, this paper is an effort to look at East Asian rcgionalism from N co-rcalist pcrspectivc in order to test its basic explanations for regionalism . In dctail, thc follow ing Neo- realist argum cnts are tested: a) thc influence ol intem ational system on regional cooperation.
b) regionalism as a response to extem al challenges or threats, c) sm all states seek coopcration w ith the strong in order to constrain it from íreedom o f aclion through regional institutions and d) the role o f the hegcm on in prom oting regionalism . The papcr íĩnds that N co-realism has provided important explanations for rcgionalism in East Asia, though they are not absolutely comprehensive.
A pplying N eo-rcalism to East Asian regionalism has not only tested its relevance to 18
p .v. M in / VNU ịournnì o f Science, Social Sciences and H um anitừs 25, No. 5E (2009) 18-23 19
regional cooperation as an I n t e r n a t i o n a l
phenom enon and hclpcd to bettcr undcrstand East Asian regionalism but also pointed out sonic aspccts o f regional cooperation that invitc explanations from other theories.
Based on thc theory o f Rcalism , Neo- rcalisni cm phasizcs the structure o f intem ational system. T hcrclbre, N co-rcalism is not considcred as a ncvv linc o f theory but it is thc system ization o f R calism [2J. A ccording to N eo-rcalism , intem ational systcm is rcgardcd as anarchical and I n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation is rejected. T he dcvelopm cnt o f rcgional coopcration seems to posc a challcnge to both Rcalism and N co-realism . H ow ever, Nco- rcalism can tcll us scvcral im portant things about regionalism or regional cooperation.
Firstly, N eo-realism holds that rcgionalism is very m uch iníluenccd by intcm ational structure. In thc w ords o f H urrell, regional cooperation is iníluenced by thc “extem al c o n fig u ra tio n s o f p o w e r, th e d y n a m ic s o f povvcr-political com petition, and the conslraining role o f thc International political system considercd as a vvhole” [3].
Accordingly, regionalism can bc undcrstood b y c o n s i d c r i n g t h e i n í l u c n c c o f Inte rn atio n a l system on thc rcgion. N co-rcalists adducc the increase o f intem ational coopcration in the w orld aftcr the C old W ar to illustrate thcir point. At the end o f thc C old W ar, therc was a rise in regional coopcration in m any places in the w orld such as the expansion o f the European Union, the dcvelopm ent o f rcgional cooperation in N orth A m erica and Africa. So vvhat w a s t h e c h a n g e ( s ) in In te rn a tio n a l s y s tc m at the end o f thc 20lh C entury and in the bcginning o f the 2151 C cntury that ìnílucnced on East A sian regionalism ? In term o f sccurity, the collapse o f the Soviet Union and the cnd o f the C old W ar w ere m ajor íactors prom oting regional cooperation in East A sia. T he end o f
the C old W ar madc thc U nited States become the superpovver in thc w orld and the bipolar w orld ordcr replaccd by thc unipolar order.
Thesc changcs havc “destroyed thc foundations o f thc prcexisting regional order
a n d t h c í o r e i g n p o l i c i e s o f e v c r y S ta te in E a s t
A sia" [4|. D uring the C old W ar, regional strategic com pctition was driven by the struggle betw een the U nited States and thc Soviet U nion, rcgional division and security concem s w ere clcarly visible to every country in the region. Econom ically, East Asia was greatly challcngcd by m ajor changes in intcm ational trade ordcr. T hcre w as a change in global tradc principle o f non-discrim ination.
R egional coopcration in m any com ers o f the w orld has favored its rcgional m em bcrs in w orld m arket com petition. East Asian countries had to com pete vvith their rivalries from W estem Europe and N orth America who have inany advantagcs from their regional cooperation. A t the samc tim e, therc werc also transitions insidc East A sian countries that led to transitions in regional order at the end o f 20* C entury. In thc cnd o f the Cold W ar, Japan becam e an cconom ic pow er that surpassed m any W estem co u n tn cs and becam e a com petitor o f the U nited States in the world m arkct. Sim ilarly, C hina recorded many great achievem ents in its opcn-door policy. The econom ic grow th helpcd both Japan and China to increase thcir m ilitary expenses. Russia, though not as strong as thc Sovict U nion, vvas still able to iníluence on the rcgion and was the param ctcr in policies o f regional countries. In addition, othcr regional countrics such as K orea, T hailand and Indonesia bccam e more and m ore im portant voices in ihe region. All o f these changes have iníluenced on East Asian regional ordcr and sccurity and on regional countries’ policies tow ards their ovvn national interests. In fact, thcrc was a trcnd in regional countrics’ policics that cncouragcd regional
20 p.v. M in / V N U Ịournaỉ o f Science, Soãal Sàences and Humanities 25, No 5F (2(H)9) 18-23
cooperation and security. For cxam ple, V ietnam bccam c morc active in regional cooperation to becom c the 7lh m em bcr o f A ssociation o f Southeast Asian N ations (A SE A N ), a m cm bcr o f Asia-Pacific E conom ic C oopcration (A PE C ) or prom otcd its relationship with rcgional countries. In a
n u t s h e l l , the transitions i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l system w hich w ere exem pliíicd by thc collapse o f the Soviet U nion, th c cnd o f thc C old W ar and o f the bipolar w orld ordcr strongly cncouraged East A sian rcgional coopcration. In other w ords, I n t e r n a t i o n a l structure played an in im portant rolc in East A sian regionalism as N co-rcalists arguc.
A nother argum cnt o f N co-realism is that regionalism is a response to cxtcm al challenges o r thrcats w hich one sm gle country can nol dcal w ith, and thcrc is no signilìcant diffcrcncc bctw ccn rcgional coopcration in econom ics o r p olitics [4, p.340]. In facc with extcm al challcnges o r thrcats, states are inclined to cooperatc w ith othcrs even though it will producc intcrdcpcndencc am ong them.
N eo-realists add that th e more extem al challcngcs or thrcats, th e m orc states coopcrate [5, p.325). N co-rcalists can trace histor.cal evidcncc to support thcir argum cnts. For ìnstancc, ih c ìnccption o f rcgional coopcration in VVcstcm r-urope in thc hcginning o f the C o ld W ar w as considcrcd as a response to the threat from thc Soviet U nion o r the G u lf C oopcration C ouncil was cstablished in response to th e thrcat from Iran. In the case o f East A sia, rcgional coopcration em crged in the context o f thc rcsurgcncc o f regionalism in m any p laccs in Ihc \vorld. E uropean Union was expanded by adm itting ncw m em bcrs from E astcm E urope and becam e the most integratcd rcgion in the world. At the same tim e, th c U nited States prom oted the establishm cnt o f thc N orth Am erican Free T radc A rca (N A IT A ). In A írica, U nited
A lrican O rg an i/atio n w as upgraded to becom e A írican U nion which took E uropean U nion as a m odel for its developm ent. T h e rcsu rg cn ce of rcgionalism m adc E ast A sian co u ntries avvare o f challenges in com pctition vvith o th cr regions in the w orld. O thcr challcngcs w cre revcalcd in thc ncg o tiatiơ n s o f W TO U ruguay and Doha rounds. Im tially, M alaysia proposcd to sct up East A sian Econom ic G roup as a “pressurc group w ithin thc U ruguay R ound" and a voice o f its m em b crs’ intcrcsts (G ricco 1997: 168).
East A sian countrics had to raise th cir one voice to protcct thcir national m terests with regard to agricultural subsidics in the Doha negotiations. 'ITìc U ruguay and Doha n egotiations pressed E ast A sian countries to set up a regional inslitulion that can raise a voice for thc vvholc rcgion in íuture negotiations. Such an institution vvill be a com m on voicc for th e w holc rcgion and increase its position in intem ational agenda [7, p.56). A nothcr cxam plc o f cxtcrnal challcnges w as A sian cconom ic crisis in 1997. T he crisis has not only rcvealcd the Nvcakness o f Asia- Pacific lỉconom ic C oopcration (A PE C ) and A SE A N but also shovved prcssurcs from In te r n a t io n a l m onc»a»7 institutions s u c h a s the International M onetary I:und (1MF), the World B ank (W B ) and \V cstem govcm m ents. Stubbs [8, p .48) providcs that “th e International M onetary F und (IM F), in conjunction w ith the U.S. governm ent. initially m isdiagnosed the problcm [o f A sian cconom ic crisis] and chose to im posc a sct o f solulions that only served to exacerbate thc situation". T his has brought East A sian countrics clo scr togcther. It is a m atter o f fact that rcgionalism in East Asia em erged in th e contcxt o f thosc changes in the w orld; th crclo rc, it is considered as a “reactive regionalism ". All o f aibrem cntioned changes in intem ational systcm at thc cnd o f 20lh C entury and the bcginning o f the 2151 Ccntury have served as convincing cvidence for Nco-
p V. M in / VNU Ịournaì o f Science, Socinl Sciences and Humanities 25, No. 5E (2(X)9) ĩ 8-23 21
realist argument thai East A sian rcgionalism was a response to cxtcm al challenges and threats.
Thirdly, N eo-rcalism holds that sm aller states will seek a rcgional arrangem ent w ith the strong in thc hope that rcgional institutions svill cnable them to conslrain it from freedom DÍ' action [9, p.169). T h e crcation o f European Comm unity in thc cffort to restrict G crm any served as historical evidencc for this N eo- realist vievvpoint. As H w ec p o in ts out, “ the sm aller ASEAN states havc com c to rccognize the potcntial o f using rcgionalism as a m eans to constrain the potcntially disruptive cffccts o f unequal pov/er” [10, p.6). In com parison, each ASEAN State is sm allcr than any o f three Northeast Asian countries o f C hina, Japan and Korea. Among thosc, China h as thc m ost potential eỉĩects even though som c m ay arguc
!hat it is Japan, not C hina [11]. C h in a was ihc dialogue partncr o f A SEAN in 1991. In the ĩarly 1990s, ASEỈAN prom otcd its rclationship iVith C hina by sctting up tìvc dialogues in Dolitics, Science, tcchnology, cco n o m ics and rade. C hina parlicipatcd in A R F and A S E M in 1994 and 1996 respcctively, and it also )articipatcd in thc M ckong R iv er Basin Developmcnt w ith ASBAN countries.
ro g eth cr with Japan and K orca, C h in a jo in ed n ASEAN + 3 in 1997. In som c certain extern,
\S E A N succccdcd in cngaging C hina into egional c o o p c r a t i o n and institutions. For ĩxample, China signcđ thc Z one o f Peace, :reedom and N cutrality D cclaration Z O P FA N ) in 2001, thc Trcaty o f A m ity and Tooperation (T A C ) in 2003. A S E A N was ictive in vvorking w ith C hina to set up VSEAN-China E xpcrl G roup o n Econom ic
"ooperation (A C E G E C ) in preparation for VSEAN-China F ree T rade A rea. T hese VSEAN efforts show that it is n o t a oincidence that A SE A N strcngthcned their elationship w ith C hina while C hina becom es
stronger. In fact, A SEAN w as succcssful in constraining C hina. One cxam ple vvas the incident o f M isch icf Rccf, in w hich the Philippines Foreign M inister, Rom ulo, expressed that “ ASEAN had spoken vvith voice . . . and C hincsc sidc vvas undoubtedly taken aback by ASEANTs reactions” ([12, p. 112].
A SE A N succeeded in tum ing bilateral disputes into m ultilateral oncs and reducing the assertiveness o f C hina [13]. In addition, A S E A N alw ays trics to m aintain its position as a d n v in g forcc in any regional institutions for its o w n intcrcsts. A nd because o f this, m any hold that East A sian rcgionalism is A SE A N ized [14]. It is o f coursc that C hina has its o w n interests in rclationship w ith ASEAN but abovc analysis show s that A SE A N has prom otcd its cooperation vvith C hina in the effort to constrain it from ữ eed o m o f action.
Up to this point, N co-rcalism is dcfinitely right to argue that sm aller states scck cooperation w ith the strong in order to constrain it from íreedom o f action by using rcgional institutions.
Last but not lcast, N co-rcalism sharcs the assum ption o f thc T heory o f H cgcm onic Stability w hich argucs that the hegem on takes an im portant rolc in regional cooperation. To support their argum cnts, N co-rcalists adduce th e ro le o f Britain in thc m id o f the 19^
C entu ry in prom oting intcm ational trade and that o f the U.S. with its M arshall Plan in W estem Huropcan coopcration at the b eginning o f the C old W ar. T he cnd o f the C old W ar and thc collapsc o f thc Soviet U nion m ade the u . s a supcrpow er in intem ational system . Hovvcvcr, thc rolc and iníluence o f the u . s in East A sian regionalism w as different from that o f the
u.s
in W cstem European regionalism afìcr th e second W orld War.A ccording to B ecson [15], “ A m erican pow er has also becn im portant in East A sia, too, but East A sian regionalism has m ove ahead
22 p.v. M in / VNU Ịoum al o f Science. Sociaì Sciences and Hunumities 25, No. 5E (2009) 18-23
despite, rathcr than bccause of, Am erican efforts” . The u . s launchcd thc M arshall Plan to support W estem Iỉuropcan regionalism but it disfavorcd all initialives and efforts to prom otc Easl Asian regionalism . Firstly, therc was no indication o f the U.S. objection to the initiative o f thc íorm er M alaysian Primc M inister, Dr. M ahathir M oham ad, to set up East Asian lìconom ic G roup (E A E G ) but Japan rcíuscd participation out o f its loyalty to the U.S. T his adđcd to make EA EG untruc. For the U.S., if Ít could bc rcalizcd, EA EG w ould rcduce thc inílucnce o f the U .S. in thc region [7, p.59). Although somc East A sian countnes proposed East Asian Econom ic C aucus ìnstead o f EAEG, onc institution for East Asian regional coopcration w as íìnally a stillbom ìdea. Secondly, the U.S. objected Jap a n ’s proposal to establish Asian M onetary Fund (AM F - financcd and m anaged by East Asian countries indepcndently from thc 1MF) to help East Asian countrics in thc A sian cconomic crisis in 1997. T h is vvas because the U.S.
foresaw thc potcntial ihat A M F \vould underm ine othcr International financial ìnstitutions such as the IMF and the W orld Bank in w hich thc
ư.s
plays a dom inant role [16, p.108). T hirdly, thc U.S. disfavorcd the inception o f ASIÌAN + 3 w hich was designed to prom ote East A sian regionalism . In thc eyes o f the U.S., A SEAN + 3 will not only underm inc or thrcat the system o f the u . s bilatcral relations w ith rcgional allics but also m ay crcate an anti-A m erican bloc both econom ically and polilically. M orcover, ASEAN + 3 can vvork as a tool for C hina to place its inílucncc in Iỉast A sia. T he U.S. had taken its bilateral rclations w ith rcgional allies to make thcni rcluctant to any proposal or initiative to prom ote East A sian regionalism . For its ow n interests, the U .S. m aintaincd its negative attitudcs tovvards and prevented East Asian regionalism . In spite o f thc u . sdisfavors and objections, East Asiai regionalism still cvolvcd, m oved íorvvard an<
rccordcd som c significant achievcm cnts Ironically, somc rcscarchcs have shovvn that i is thc
u.s
disíavors and objcctions, especialb in 1997 Asian econom ic crisis, that promotct East Asian regionalism [17].T h e analysis o f th c U.S. role and influenc<
on East Asian rcgionalism show s that Nco rcalist argum cnt o f thc hcgem on is relevant t(
rcgional coopcration. T h e
u.s
objection tc EAEG, to the J a p a n 's proposal o f Asiar M onctary Fund and its d isfav o r o f A SEA N + : havc greatly im pacted East A sian regionalism T he U.S. im pact w as in such a grcat extern tha somc say that East A sian rcgionalism can no bc undcrstood vvithout rcfcỉTÌng to the u . s [18 p.257). H ow ever, it is critical to point out tha the U.S. rolc and ìm pact led to thc devclopm ent o f regional coopcration in boứ W cslcrn Europc and East Asia but it dic happcn in diffcrent w ay in E ast A sia, vvhich is a convcrse w ith N eo-reahst standpoint.In a nutshell, N eo-rcalism has providcc im portant explanations for regional coopcration. Some ot’ thcse cxplanations havc hccn tesỉed in thc casc study o f East Asiar regionalism . T he cnd o f thc C old War, thc brcak-up o f the Sovict Union, the replaccmcni o f th c b ip o l a r I n t e r n a ti o n a l o r d c r b y thc unipolar and m tcr-rcgional com petition werc m ajor factors o f intem ational structurc contributed to prom oting East Asiar rcgionalism . In addition, East A sian countries had to face vvith m any cxternal challenges anc thrcals. T he expansion o f thc liuropcan Union thc birth o f A frican Union, the u . s attempi tow ards N orlh A m erican Frce T rade Area anc thc pressurcs from W T O negotiations wer<
m ajor challcnges that urged East Asian states to spcak onc voice for the whole region. Apan from factors o f the intem ational structurc ASEAN sm allcr states w cre active in anc m am tained its driving force in cooperatior
p.v. M in / V N U Ịoumaỉ o f Science, Sociaỉ Sciences and Humanities 25, No. 5E (2()í)9) 18-23 23
w ith bigger regional countries, cspccially C hina, in the hope that rcgional institutions vvill cnable them to constrain it from freedom o f action. T h cse efforts o f A SEA N are definitcly in linc vvith N eo-realist argument.
Finally, thc u.s íactor in East Asian regionahsm vvas not com pletely relevant to their point o f vicvv but N eo-realists wcre right to em phasize the rolc and im pact o f the U.S. in regional coopcration.
Applying one single theory to study regionalism alw ays leads to a one-sided ìntcrpretation. As a m atter o f fact, East Asian rcgionalism h as been affected in various dcgrees by m any extem al and intcrnal factors.
There have bccn stuđies that show the role o f othcr íactors on East Asian rcgionalism such as regional h istory, culture, society, oversea C hinese b u sin css nct\vork or Japancsc private coopcratcs [14]. How cver, applying Neo- realism to East A sian regionalism , on the one hand, has help ed to test its relevancc to onc
p h e n o m c n o n in I n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s a n d to
understand it bcttcr. On the other hand, this also invites explanations from o th er theorics for East A sian regionalism .
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