Feed contamination with mycotoxins is a recurring problem in the livestock feed industry in an increasingly competitive market. The feed industry is a sustainable outlet for the food processing industry, processing by-products into high-quality animal feed.
Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry
DI/LC-MS/MS based plasma metabolome analysis reveals the effects of sequestering agents on the metabolic status of dairy cows challenged with aflatoxin B1.Toxins. In Vitro Activity of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Oil on Growth and Ochratoxin A Production by Aspergillus carbonariusIsolates.Toxins.
The Effectiveness of Durian Peel as a Multi-Mycotoxin Adsorbent
- Introduction
- Results and Discussion 1. Characterization of Durian Peel
- Conclusions
- Materials and Methods 1. Reagents and Samples
Since the gastrointestinal system is the main target of mycotoxins, the "protective" effect of ATDP in reducing the bioaccessibility of AFB1, OTA, ZEA and FB1 (ie, the amount of mycotoxin that is released from the food matrix and is available for absorption through the intestinal wall) was determined by simulating a gastrointestinal digestion process. These data were transferred to SigmaPlot and fitted using different mathematical isothermal models (i.e., Langmuir, Freundlich, and Sips models), as described by Avantaggiato et al.
DI/LC–MS/MS-Based Metabolome Analysis of
Plasma Reveals the Effects of Sequestering Agents on the Metabolic Status of Dairy Cows Challenged with
Results and Discussions
This is evidence that these metabolites, including ethanol and acetic acid reported in our companion paper, are good biomarkers of aflatoxin ingestion in dairy cows fed without sequestration agents. The combination of arginine, alanine, citrulline, and leucine had sufficient sensitivity and specificity to serve as candidate biomarkers of aflatoxin ingestion in dairy cows fed without sequestering agents.
Materials and Methods
However, the effectiveness of SCFP in augmenting the inflammatory stress response to aflatoxin exposure has been inconsistent [4]. Clay supplementation prevented the effects of AFB1, while clay and SCFP supplementation improved the metabolic status of cows during aflatoxin exposure.
Data and Statistical Analysis
Effect of the addition of a mycotoxin sequestering agent on the aflatoxin M1 concentration in milk and the performance and immune response of dairy cattle fed an aflatoxin B1 contaminated diet.J. The bioavailability of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A, but not of fumonisin B1 or deoxynivalenol, is increased in starch-induced low rumen pH in non-lactating dairy cows.J.
Comparative In Vitro Assessment of a Range of
Commercial Feed Additives with Multiple Mycotoxin Binding Claims
Results and Discussion
Although the adsorption capacity of product 1 and 3 was reduced in the GIT model, they still significantly adsorbed DON, ZEN, FB1, OTA, T-2 and AFB1 (p<0.05) compared to product 2 and 4. In In the current study, an in vitro GIT model was designed to assess and compare the efficacy of ten commercially available binders with multiple mycotoxin claims on DON, ZEN, FB1, OTA, T-2 and AFB1.
Materials and Methods 1. Chemicals and Reagents
Results showed that most of the products could bind DON, ZEN, FB1, OTA, T-2 and AFB1 significantly in both alkaline and acidic buffer solutions. Evaluation of the effect of mycotoxin binders in animal feed on the analytical performance of standardized methods for the determination of mycotoxins in feed.Food Addit.
Efficacy of a Yeast Cell Wall Extract to Mitigate the Effect of Naturally Co-Occurring Mycotoxins
Contaminating Feed Ingredients Fed to Young Pigs
Impact on Gut Health, Microbiome, and Growth
Results 1. Experiment 1
Growth performance of pigs fed diets with mycotoxins (MT) and yeast cell wall extract (YCWE1) (YC) in experiment 1. On the other hand, feeding with YCWE reduced (p<0.05) IgA concentration in the jejunal mucosa of pigs . Feeding diets with mycotoxins reduced (p<0.05) the percentage of sequences from Lactobacillus kitasatonisin of the jejunal mucosa of pigs.
Discussion
There may be a tendency to increase serum Na and Cl levels in growing pigs fed YCWE. In addition, the inclusion of YCWE in mycotoxin diets successfully overcame the increase in protein carbonyl in the jejunum mucosa observed in mycotoxin-fed pigs. This reasoning can also be used to explain the reduction in Lactobacillus equicursoris observed in pigs fed YCWE.
Materials and Methods
The species Trabulsiella odontotermitis is found in the gastrointestinal tract of termites that can digest the cell wall of fungi [40]. For example, the increase in the share of the Lactobacilaceae family in the gut microbiome of mycotoxin-fed pigs as well as the increase in gram-positive bacteria such as Turicibacter sanguinis and Clostridium sp. Enterocyte proliferation and apoptosis in the caudal small intestine is influenced by the composition of colonizing commensal bacteria in the neonatal gnotobiotic pig.J.
Calcination Enhances the Aflatoxin and Zearalenone Binding Efficiency of a Tunisian Clay
Results
These results indicate that thermal treatment of clay increases the binding efficiency of AFG1 and AFG2. Our results show that the chemical composition of the studied clay was not changed after heat treatment. The decrease in CEC is due to the dehydration and dehydroxylation of smectite, which results in the collapse of the interlayer [53, 60].
Conclusions
Besides the pore size, CEC play an important role in the adsorption phenomenon [18]. Moreover, AFB1 is a polar mycotoxin and contains β-carbonyl, which is involved in the adsorption process [55]. 21], the adsorption process involves the exchange of electrons of the metal cation on the surface of the adsorbent, especially the positive charge of calcium ions on each layer of clay.
Materials and Methods 1. Chemical Products and Reagents
The chemical composition of the minerals present in the two clays was carried out using the XRF spectrometer model Thermo OASIS 9900 (Thermo Fisher Scientific (Schweiz) AG, Bâle, Suisse). FTIR-IR helps in identifying various forms of the minerals present in the clay. The textural properties of the clay (specific surface area, porosity) were determined by nitrogen adsorption using the multipoint Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) method (ASAP 2020 Micromeritics Instruments, Norcross, GA, USA).
In Vitro Activity of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Oil on Growth and Ochratoxin A Production by
Materials and Methods 1. Fungal Strains
The growth of fungal cultures containing different concentrations of neem oil was compared with the growth of a control culture grown without EO. The statistical models used in the ANOVA considered the effects of the dependent variables and "strain" as a covariate within different levels of neem oil concentration. This means that the concentration of OTA was not detected above the detection limit (DL) of the method used.
Impact of Naturally Contaminated Substrates on Alphitobius diaperinus and Hermetia illucens
Uptake and Excretion of Mycotoxins
Materials and Methods 1. Chemicals
Salts used for extraction and for the preparation of eluents such as sodium chloride and ammonium acetate were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Milan, Italy). 999/2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Annexes X, XIV and XV of Commission Regulation (EU) No. Eradication of some transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.
Target Analysis and Retrospective Screening of Multiple Mycotoxins in Pet Food Using
UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS
Materials and Methods 1. Chemical and Reagents
Different collision energies were tested while the infusion of the compound was performed in the HRMS. A review of the mycotoxin adsorbents, with emphasis on their multibinding capacity, for decontamination of animal feed. Food Chem. Mapping and risk assessment of the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxin A and aflatoxins in commercial dry dog food. Mycotoxin Res.
Pig Urinary Concentration of Mycotoxins and
Metabolites Reflects Regional Differences, Mycotoxin Intake and Feed Contaminations
Materials and Methods 1. Collection of Samples
The age of pigs at slaughter was on average 6 months with an interval of 5-8 months. Bioavailability of the Fusarium toxin deoxynvalenol (DON) from naturally contaminated wheat to swine. Toxicol. Investigation of the distribution of zearalenone and its metabolites in pigs fed zearalenone-contaminated feed. Period.
In-Vitro Cell Culture for Efficient Assessment of Mycotoxin Exposure, Toxicity and Risk Mitigation
Mycotoxins
DON is one of the most commonly detected mycotoxins in cereal crops such as wheat, maize, barley and rye [38]. AFB1 is the most potent member of the aflatoxin family based on its well-characterized carcinogenicity leading to hepatocellular carcinoma in both humans and animals [ 51 ]. The mycotoxin MPA is produced by Penicillium roquefortifungi, which is a major silage spoilage and the most prevalent post-harvest fungus found in forage silages due to its capacity to grow in low oxygen and high carbon dioxide, as well as in acidic and cold environmental conditions [37. ,73-78].
The Intestinal Barrier 1. Physical Barrier
IELs that contribute to the innate immune barrier, or "conventional" IELs that contribute to the acquired immunological barrier. The resident intestinal M∅ also efficiently removes apoptotic cells and foreign debris and contributes to the repair and remodeling of damaged tissues [112,113]. Immunoglobulin (IgA)-producing B1 cells are also present [105]; the IgA antibodies produced by their differentiated plasma cells are selectively transported across the epithelium into the intestinal lumen where it helps prevent microbial invasion by decreasing their motility and adhesion to the epithelial surface [122,123].
In-vitro Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Models
Although the events are less well characterized in PP than MLN, they are thought to be analogous [124]; in short, antigen-specific TH cells are activated during antigen presentation and can then assist in the activation of antigen-specific B cells, which clonally expand within germinal centers and differentiate into IgA-secreting plasma cells. Both IPECs are able to spontaneously differentiate into multiple IEC types [139] and a continuous polarized monolayer and TJ structure can form after differentiation [144]. Compared with Caco-2, the IPEC-1 and IPEC-J2 IECs achieve a homogeneous appearance and express different differentiation markers within a shorter time period; within 10 days and 1–2 weeks of culture after confluence, respectively, and the IPEC-J2 line is more morphologically and functionally differentiated than the IPEC-1 line [144].
Effects of Selected Mycotoxins on Intestinal Barrier Function 1. Cytotoxic Effects of Individual or Combined Mycotoxins on IECs
For example, it has been reported that dividing IPEC-J2 and Caco-2 cells are both more sensitive to DON than their differentiated counterparts. Cell death has been reported to be induced by DON via both apoptosis and necrosis. The pathway of DON application may also affect TEER measurements, as the decrease in Caco-2 and IPEC-J2 cell TEER measurements has been reported to be more pronounced when DON was applied to the basolateral side compared to the apical exposure of DON [143,152].
Effect of Selected Mycotoxins on the Intestinal Immune System
The effect of ZEA on the modulation of cytokine gene expression was performed using IPEC-1 and IPEC-J2 cell lines. A stimulatory effect on IFN-λ and IL-4 gene expression was observed in IPEC-1 after 1 h of exposure to 25μM of ZEA [23]. As for the effect of other mycotoxins, in Caco-2 cells, IL-8 protein expression was stimulated in a concentration-dependent manner by MPA at concentrations ranging from 78μM to 780μM after 48 hours of exposure [75] .
In-Vitro Assessment of Efficacy of Risk Mitigation 1. Strategies to Counteract Mycotoxin Contamination
Among all approaches, the addition of mycotoxin adsorbents to animal feed, also called "mycotoxin binders", one of the two classes of mycotoxin detoxifying agents [204], is one of the most widespread and promising remedial approaches to reduce the risk of mycotoxicosis in livestock [209-212]. The aluminosilicate minerals are the most studied of the silica-based inorganic mycotoxin absorbents [211,213]. Cholestyramine is the best known of the synthetic polymers and has been shown to be an effective adsorbent for FB1, OTA and ZEA.
Suitability and Limitations of Reviewed Intestinal in Vitro Models
To date, limited studies have investigated the effects of mycotoxins on intestinal barrier functions using 2D co-culture models. However, an IEC+immune cell co-culture system may be more appropriate than monocultures to study the effects of mycotoxins on intestinal barrier function because 2D co-culture models better represent epithelial structure and function in vivo. Compared to 3D co-culture models, 2D co-culture models have reduced cell-cell interactions, lack cell-matrix interactions and may lack complete tissue architecture [254].
Conclusion and Discussion
This 2D system allows the study of cell-to-cell interactions through direct cell contact and soluble factors secreted between IECs and immune cells depending on the co-culture setup [129,253]. However, it may be more appropriate and efficient to co-culture different cell types, such as the IEC+macrophage co-culture model, to simulate a more complex in vitro system that physiologically and morphologically better reflects the intestinal mucosa. Although there are limitations associated with cell culture models, in vitro monoculture or even better a co-culture system is an effective approach for the initial assessment of the toxicity of mycotoxins and their mixtures and the assessment of adsorbent efficiency.
Suggestions for Future Research
Lymphocyte-selective cytostatic and immunosuppressive effects of mycophenolic acid in vitro: Role of deoxyguanosine nucleotide depletion. Dual effects exerted in vitro by micromolar concentrations of deoxynivalenol on undifferentiated caco-2 cells. toxins. Exposure to zearalenone mycotoxin alters porcine epithelial cells in vitro through differential gene expression.Toxicol.
Decontamination of Mycotoxin-Contaminated Feedstuffs and Compound Feed
- Grain Cleaning
- Thermal Processing
- Chemical Agents
- Feed Additives for the Prevention of Mycotoxin Effects
- Biological Detoxification and Biotransformation
The main characteristic is the physical structure of the adsorbent, i.e. the total load and loading distribution, the pore dimensions and the available surface area. A large difference in the efficiency of bentonites in the sequestration of aflatoxin B1 has been shown in several in vitro studies [51]. It has been shown to be effective in the irreversible removal of aflatoxin B1 from aflatoxin-contaminated compound feed for broiler diets [111].
