Greenhouse Gases

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Introduction

Energy security is therefore crucial for the future of the manufacturing industry and provides a significant incentive to reduce consumption levels. A case study to demonstrate the applicability of the developed EM procedure for the manufacturing level of business strategy.

Review of Existing EM Techniques

Energy Research on an Enterprise Level
Energy Research on a Facility Level
Energy Research at the Machine Cell Level
Energy Research Associated with Production Machines and Equipment
Energy Research on the Turret Level (Theoretical Process Energy)

Integration of the optimization of energy consumption of processes as part of the process selection algorithm in a process planning program is also possible as and has been demonstrated [23]. Since the energy efficiency of the system is highly part-specific, a KERS must be tailored.

Figure 3. Energy considerations in manufacturing. Existing research predominantly in dark grey areas

An Overview of the Current Scope of EM

Lifecycle Process System Planning

Therefore, a large number of lifecycle process planning tools are required to help manufacturers manage their process requirements over the long term. Lifecycle process EM must consider flexible, reconfigurable process chains, peripheral energy requirements (refrigeration, transport systems, etc.) and plant layout to ensure the most appropriate.

Eco-Intelligent Manufacturing and Agile Supply Chains

Recently, as with products, manufacturers have begun to take a life-cycle view not only of their factories, but also of the processes within the factories [47]. Therefore, the planning of the life cycle process is highly dependent on a company's ability to map the roadmap of the sector in which it operates.

Energy Management at the Business Strategy Level

EM techniques are required to assess the different effects of the two strategies so that effective EM decisions can be made. Of crucial importance is sufficient insight into the impact of the business strategy on energy consumption.

Table 1. A comparison of different manufacturing considerations for short- and long-life furniture.

A Case Study for EM Method at the Business Strategy Level

The longer the lifespan of the product in relation to the energy consumption, the more energy-efficient the production of the product. The incentive to extend the life of the product by the manufacturer means that extra care may be taken in the maintenance of the roof covering, at the expense of Ey,mnt.

Table 2. Numerical values used for comparison between PSS and sale business strategies for steel roofing.

Concluding Discussions

If the manufacturer encourages recycling of the material, they can justify that any energy benefit is offset against their manufacturing energy consumption. It therefore stands to reason that approaches to EM for business strategies should take into account the energy consumption over which the manufacturer has direct control over the product's life cycle.

Author details

These new strategies are developed with economic benefit as a primary focus, but it is also important for production. Crucially at the business strategy level, there is no requirement for detailed energy data that is difficult to obtain at a planning stage.

Requirements for electrical energy for a production process, Proceedings of CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering. Improving Energy Efficiency in Factories - Case Studies and Guidance, 16th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engi‐.

The Choice between Economic Policies to Face Greenhouse Consequences

The traditional issue of the choice of environmental policies
Carbon tax versus tradable permit system
Insurance as an environmental policy instrument
Policies choice in the case of climate change and the concept of “economic global public goods”
Final remarks: COP 21 and the issue of the linkage of different national policies

The insurance sector could play a relevant role in the choice of political-economic instruments for climate change. Policy choice in the case of climate change and the concept of “economic global public goods” global public goods”.

Table 1. Command and control versus carbon tax versus tradable permit system

Energy for Sustainable Development: The Energy–

Poverty–Climate Nexus

The Problems

The Energy–Poverty Nexus
The Energy–Climate Nexus
The Poverty–Climate Nexus

Potential Solutions

Solar Power
Wind Power
Clean Biomass
Micro-Hydro
Hybrid Systems

What Now? Next Steps
Summary

Off-grid and mini-grid options for renewable electricity include solar, wind, clean biomass and micro-hydro. Development of renewable energy and sustainability for off-grid rural areas in developing countries and energy efficiency.

Table 1. Number of people lacking access to electricity and relying on the traditional use of biomass for cooking, 2009 (million) [2]

Native Forest and Climate Change — The Role of the Subtropical Forest, Potentials, and Threats

Deforestation, fragmentation, and climate change

Therefore, changes in the biomass, including decomposition – although it is a hardly measurable phenomenon [10] – will affect the character of the soil. Variations in land cover are one of the natural and anthropogenic forces that act at different scales and influence changes in regional and global climates.

Climate change in Argentina

A better understanding of biomass and carbon stocks in forests therefore provides valuable information for spatial planning and the design of comprehensive strategies in the context of global climate change. This information is also needed to improve understanding of biomass and carbon distribution patterns at the global level and to describe land use patterns.

Materials and methods

The Yungas ecosystem: Pedemontana Jungle
Case studies
Sampling design
Estimation of biomass and carbon

The fragmentation of the Pedemontana jungle generates microclimate changes at the edges, which can affect carbon sequestration. The methodology used for each of the case studies presented in the next section shows some differences which are summarized in Table 1.

Figure 1. Annual average rainfall (mm), annual average temperature (°C), and altitude (m.a.s.l.) for different sites stud‐

Results and discussion

Effect of temperature and humidity on the carbon stock: dry and humid subtropical forests at the same latitude
Effect of legal protection on the ecosystem
Effect of fragmentation on the carbon stock Contributors: Manrique, S.M

Soil temperature (ST) is one of the most stable variables, although variations can be discerned: considering 100% at the edge (18°C on average) it is reduced to 25% in the interior. The studied species represent approximately 86-90% of the total in the case of forest (by plot).

Figure 1. Annual average rainfall (mm), annual average temperature (°C), and altitude (m.a.s.l.) for different sites studied in the Pedemontana Jungle in northern Argentina (Salta and Jujuy provinces). Source: http://es.climate‐data.org/location/145171/

Main remarks

Furthermore, the carbon sequestration potential of the Pedemontan jungle increases as latitude decreases, with 28% more carbon sequestered at 22° than 24°S latitude. Carbon sequestration in the least human-impacted (degradation) sectors of the Pedemontan jungle is 23% higher than in more degraded areas.

Acknowledgements

At the same time, deforestation, degradation and fragmentation of the Pedemontana jungle can affect its ecological and social integrity, and the ability to provide ecosystem services of provision and regulation in the long term, and therefore its ability to respond to the global impact of climate change. The consequences of this imbalance in handling are shown negatively in the medium and long term, while in the short term they cannot be seen most of the time.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions – Carbon Capture, Storage and Utilisation

CO 2 capture

There are several technologies and strategies to capture CO2 from stationary sources: pre-combustion, post-combustion and oxygen gas (Figure 2). There are several technologies and strategies for capturing CO2 from stationary sources: pre-combustion, post-combustion and oxy-fuel (Figure 2).

First generation of capture technologies

Post-combustion capture
Chemical absorption from amines
Pre-combustion capture
Oxy-combustion capture

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is likely to be a crucial part of the lowest-cost path to decarbonisation. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is likely to be a crucial part of the lowest-cost path to removal.

Figure 4. Diagram of a conventional CO 2 capture process using amine-based chemical absorption.

Emerging technologies for CO 2 capture

Chemical looping combustion
Hydrate-based separation
Calcium looping
Partial oxy-combustion
Biological CO 2 capture
Ionic liquid absorption

This separation approach is based on hydrate formation from high-pressure water in contact with flue gas containing CO2. Calcium binding is based on the reversible reaction between CaO and CO2 to form calcium carbonate.

Figure 8. A simplified scheme of a partial oxy-combustion plant.

CO 2 transport

A new hybrid concept is proposed to reduce the energy requirements associated with the CO2 capture step by combining a partial combustion of fuel with oxygen (using oxygen-enriched air instead of high-purity oxygen as the oxidant) and a CO2 separation process that treats a flue gas with a higher CO2. The use of algae is also considered a promising CO2 capture option among natural reactions.

Table 1. Current CO 2 pipelines. The first long distance CO 2 pipeline was in the 1970s

CO 2 storage

Depleted hydrocarbon fields
Deep saline aquifers
Coal seams
Site selection and exploration

Coal properties (range, grade and permeability) determine the suitability of the site, either for storage or storage with only CH4 recovery. In general, most of the areas that could be suitable for the storage of CO2 have not been well explored geologically.

Figure 9 represents a proposed work flow for any CO 2 storage project. It is possible to determine three mayor phases: pre-injection, injection and post-injection phases.

Monitoring techniques

The wells will provide real information on the storage and formation of the cap under subsurface conditions. Considering the injection phase, controlling the injected CO2 behavior is one of the most important tasks.

CO 2 uses

Current uses of CO 2
Direct use of CO 2

Water treatment
Use of CO 2 in chemicals

Chemical conversion

Chemical cleaning with CO2 is one of the most popular applications of supercritical fluids in the textile sector. Currently, 95% of microalgae production is based on open systems (raceways or round open ponds).

Figure 11. CO 2 uses. Different pathways for utilisation CO 2 .

New ways for CO 2 uses

Power to gas technology (P2G)
Electrochemical CO 2 utilisation
Polymers production
Macrofouling control in industrial facilities

In the "Dream Production" project, Bayer MaterialScience (Germany) combines part of the waste streams of coal-fired power plants, CO2, with the production of polymers. A project developed by Iberdrola and the University of Salamanca shows that carbon dioxide acidification is only in

Figure 19. Different products made with CO 2 derivatives.

Others

Over the years, several projects have focused on the direct use of flue gases from combined cycle power plants to develop various applications. In this way, the CENIT SOST-CO2 project demonstrated the use of CCPP flue gases in a direct way for pH control in cooling tower cooling water systems, and Iberdrola developed an application for power plants.

Environmental problem and CO 2 emissions

The major challenges facing these green technologies lie in the difficulty for implementation on an industrial scale, which makes them economically unfeasible compared to fossil fuel-based power plants. In the pre-combustion capture scenario, the fossil fuel is treated under certain temperature and pressure to gasify the fuel and produce hydrogen.

Existing technologies for CO 2 capture

The discovery of new fossil fuel reserves, combined with a rising demand for energy, has led to an increase in the number and capacity of power plants worldwide. In this chapter, a large section will be devoted to the incorporation of ILs into the pores of MOFs to improve their CO2 capture capacity.

CO 2 capture using solid sorbents

Criteria for the evaluation of solid sorbents
Zeolites
Carbon-based CO 2 capture
Metal organic frameworks

In particular, stability in the presence of water vapor is essential for the sustainable performance of a solid sorbent. This finding highlights the detrimental effect of the presence of water vapor on CO2 adsorption on zeolites.

Graphite-based capture has recently (after 2011) been introduced as a promising candidate for CO2 capture applications, and research is growing rapidly in this area [73–77]. The following section is devoted to the review of the most recent studies of CO2 capture and separation on MOFs, and we will mainly target the works published in the last four years.

Evaluation of MOFs in CO 2 Capture
Strategies to Improve the CO 2 Capture Performance on MOFs

In addition to the nature of the metal junctions, the method of activation was found to play a vital role in determining CO2 uptake and CO2 affinity, which was consistent with Llewellyn et al. Moreover, the introduction of functional groups on the metal faces before the framework synthesis can interfere with the formation of the building units, which can result in the deterioration of the crystal structure [183–185].

Table 1. Adsorption capacities at high pressure

Recent Advances and Current Trends

Hybrid Systems Based on MOFs
Ionic Liquids/MOF Composites
Ab/Adsorption in Ionic Liquids/MOF Slurry System

Pyridine was also grafted onto Ni-DOBDC to improve water stability and increase the hydrophobicity of the material [196]. Increasing ZIF-8 loads have shown further improvement in CO2 capacity as previously observed [225]; however, it is worth noting that a high solids load in the sludge system was not recommended from a process engineering point of view, as it could cause problems during the pumping of the sludge mixture and increase the solids losses in the multi-cycle separation process [225].

Figure 6. Top left: schematic of the slurry system. (a) Comparison of selectivity toward N 2

Challenges and Outlook

Water Stability of MOFs

Finally, in the following section, we focus on the studies of water stability as it is one of the main drawbacks of MOFs. 231] conducted a study on the effects of organic ligand functionalization in a series of isostructural MOFs in the Zn(BDC-X)-(DABCO) 0.5 family on water stability.

Carbon Dioxide Geological Storage (CGS) – Current Status and Opportunities

CGS: Storage Capacity

Estimation techniques in depleted oil and gas reservoir
Estimation techniques in saline aquifers
Estimation techniques in coal beds

According to the estimation of CO2 storage capacity studied by Bachu et al., based on a summary of the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF), different time frames and field scales are considered, taking into account different capture mechanisms (physical and chemical mechanisms) [26]. It should be noted that the other methods used in saline reservoirs can be used here for the estimation of CO2 storage volume: 'volumetric-based estimation'.

Figure 2. Techno-Economic Resource Pyramid for capacity estimation in CO 2 geological storage.

CGS: Modeling and Simulation

According to the CGS simulation methods, there have been some comparative investigations between the different simulators, as reported by David et al. GholamiY., et al., in 2015, also investigated the measurement of CO2 diffusivity in synthetic and saline aquifer solutions at reservoir conditions with an emphasis on the role of ion interactions [114-117].

CGS: Monitoring and Verification

Another 2/3-dimensional simulation study focusing on reactive flow and transport in deep saline aquifers has been performed by Kumar et al. Additional features based on Law et al., such as coal matrix swelling, mixed gas diffusion, non-isothermal effect, water motion, etc., should be considered [103].

Conclusions

95] Xu T., Apps J.A., et al.: Numerical simulation of CO2 deposition by mineral trapping in deep aquifers. 132] Hovorka S.D., Benson S.M. et al.: Measuring the sustainability of CO2 storage in saline formations: the Frio experience.

Methane Emissions from Rice Production in the United States — A Review

The greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gas emissions
Rice production

Rice production extent
Global rice production practices
Rice production practices in the US
Arkansas rice production practices

Flooded soils

Physical characteristics of flooded soils
Soil redox potential

Methane emissions from rice

Methane production and oxidation
Substrate for methane production
Duration and timing of methane production
Transport mechanisms

Factors affecting methane emissions from rice

Soil factors affecting methane emissions from rice

Arkansas was responsible for 36% of estimated CH4 emissions from rice cultivation, although Arkansas accounted for 43% of total US rice production in 2013. China and India currently dominate global rice production accounting for 30 and 22%, respectively, of total global production in 2012.