Le Hong Vuong. Su khde biet trong he thong den thdp Hindu gido ...
Sir KHAC BIET TRONG HE THONG DEN THAP HINDU GIAO CUA AN DO VA CHAM PA
LeHong Vitrfng*
Truong Dgi hoc Duy Tan, Viet Nam
Ngay nhgn bai: 15/05/2018, ngay gmphan bien: }5/06/2018, ngdy duyet ddng. 30/07/2018
TTX^t nu&c Cham Pa mac dii khong cdn ton tgi nhimg dd de lgi cho dai nhiing tdi sdn vo / -^gin bao gom cd kho tdng vdn hoa vdt the vdphi vat the. Mot trong nhirng gid tri do Id he thong den thdp Cham trdi khdp khu vuc mien Trung. Thdp Chdm the hien rd net su tiep thu vdn hoa An Do nhung ciing khong vi the md khoa Idp di nhirng "du&ng net sinh dong " cua van hoa bdn dia Chdm. Trong phgm vi bdi viet, tdc gid lam ro su khac biet trong he thong den thdp Hindu gido cita An Do vd Chdm Pa.
Tir khda: Den thap, van hda, Hindu giao, Cham Pa, An Dp Mo-dau
Thdi gian gan day, nghien cuu ve he thong thap Cham da dupe mot so hpc gia quan tam tim hieu. Tuy nhien, cac nghien cuu chii yeu dimg lai d gidi thieu ve gia tri ciia he thdng den thdp. Vi vay, tac gia bai viet da tien hanh nghien ciiu mot hudng di khac nham tim su khac biet giiia thap Cham d mien Tnmg, Viet Nam va den thap Hindu giao d An Dp ciing nhu lihung net ban dia Cham vdn chiu anh hudng ldn tir Hindu giao cua An Dp.
1. Su- tiep nhain Hindu giao trong van hoa Cham Pa
Theo cac tu lieu lich sir, Vuong qudc Cham Pa dupe hinh thanh tir nam 192. Dudi sir lanh dao ciia Khu Lien, nhan dan Huyen Tupng Lam chong lai su do hd cua nha Han lap ra nha nudc Lam Ap. Din nam 1832 (dudi thdi Vua Minh Mang), che dp tii tri cua Cham Pa ket thiic va dat nudc Cham Pa khdng cdn
tdn tai. Khoang 1640 nam xay dung va phat trien, van hda Cham Pa da cd nhiing thanh tuu rucro.
Van hda Cham Pa da tiep nhan dupe nhiing gia tri tir nen van minh An Dp ngay tii thdi ky dau ciia lich sir gan vdi nen van hoa Sa Huynh (van hda tien Cham Pa). Nhirng kham pha ve nen van hda Sa Huynh d Quang Ngai, Quang Nam... qua cac hien vat trang sire, cac manh gom cho thdy dupe su giao luu nay. Khi gianh dupe thang Ipi nam 192, ngudi Cham dua tren ca sd mo hinh xa hdi cua An Dp liic bay gid de xay dung dat nudc Cham Pa. Vdi vi tri vd cimg thuSn Ipi, Cham Pa va An Dp da phat trien quan he giao thuong dudng bien.
Theo do, Hindu giao da dupe truyen vao dat nudc Cham Pa hang con dudng thuong mai - con dudng hda binh. Dd ciing chinh la mot trong nhung ly do vi sao Hindu giao dupe nhan dan Cham Pa liic bay gid de dang tiep nhan va cd nhiing anh hudng sau sac. Song hanh vdi dilu dd \k su tuong ddng trong Hindu giao va yeu td van hda, tu nhien ciia vimg dat.
Nghien ciru An Bo va Chau A. So 8 - 2018 Ngudi Cham sinh sdng d khu vuc mien Trung,
duoc "Me " thien nhien uu al ban tang dia hinh niii d phia Tay gan vdi day Hoanh Son va bien ca menh mdng d phia Ddng gan vdi Thai Binh Duong. Cdn trong Hindu giao, cac yeu td tu nhien dupe long ghep thdng qua: dat, trdi, vii tru, cac vi than va hien hiiu trong nhiing cau chuyen.
Ket qua ciia qua trinh giao luu ay mang lai thanh tuu trong nhieu ITnh vuc. He thong thap Cham la mpt trong nhiing minh chiing van cdn tdn tai cho den ngay nay. Cac khu thap Cham tai eac tinh mien Trung nhu: Thira Thien Hue cd thap My Khanh; Quang Nam cd khu thap My Son, Chien Dan, Bang An, Khuong My...; Binh Dinh co khu thap Duong Long, Canh Tien, Banh It...; Phii Yen co thap Nhan;
Khanh Hda c6 khu thap Ba Ponagar; Ninh Thuan cd khu thap Pokldngrai, Pdrdme...;
Binh Thuan cd khu thap Poshanu.
2. Su-khac biet trong he thong den thap Hindu giao cua An Dp va Cham Pa
Viec thira hudng nhiing gia tri van hda cua Hindu giao ttr An Dp la mpt yeu to nen tang dan den nhiing diem tuang dong trong he thdng den thap Cham va den thap Hipdu giao ciia An Dp. Bai viet tap trung lam ro su khac biet ve nhung yeu td nhu: kien tnic thap va ket cau khu thap, mo tip trang tri, chat lieu xay dung, ky thuat xay dung va he thdng thd tu. Doi tupng dupe so sanh la nhiing thap Cham khu vuc mien Tnmg - dai dien la My Son va cac den thap tieu bieu cua Hindu giao tai An Dp nhu:
quan the den thap Khajuraho, den Padmanabhaswamy, khu den thap Vaishno Devi, khu den thap Virupaksha, khu den thap Lingaraj... Cac khu den thap dupe lira chpn dua tren su ndi tieng doi vcri du khach, sir linh
thieng ddi vdi eac tin do hanh huang va dai dien cho cac phong each kien tnic.
2.1. Kien triic thdp vd kit cdu khu thdp - Kien true thdp
Kien tnic la mot trong nhirng diem khac biet noi bat. Vdi cac thap Cham dupe chia lam ba phan rd ret: de thap (Bhurloca), than thap (Bhurvaloka) va mai thap (Svarloka). Phan than thap thdng thudng dupe xay dung vdi cac cot noi, tren cd vien mai dua ra ngoai nhung khong nhieu. Cua nho ra ngoai co tru do va xa hang da. Khdi mai giat cap hinh kim tu thap va thudng cd hai den bdn tang mai. Kien tnic mdi tang cd sir luu lai kien tnic tang dudi nhung nhd diin va thap ban tang dudi. Tren cimg ket thuc bang mpt Linga hoac mpt chdm nhpn hinh blip sen, mpt sd thap md phdng mai cong hinh thuyen. Dieu nay thuc sir cd y nghia vdi cu dan Cham song d vimg duyen hai Tnmg bp vdi ngu nghiep la mot nghe chinh. Day ciang chinh la su khac biet khd thay d cac den thap An Dp giao d khu vuc. Nhin chung, kien tnic thap cd ty le can doi, hai hda tao dang ve uy nghi, tram mac cho hinh tupng thap Cham.
— kalasha
Hinh 1: So- do mat dung cua den thap Hindu giao o^ An Do
Le Hdng Vuang. Sir khde biet trong he thong den thdp Hindu gido ...
Hinh thai kiln tnic cua cac den thap Hindu giao tai An Dp kha da dang va phong phii. Tuy nhien, kien tnic eo ban cita mpt den thap Hindu giao tieu bieu d An Dp (xet d phuang dien diing) nhu sau:
"Platform " dupe biet tdi nhu phan de hay phan nen ciia thap;
"Sikhara" la than thap chinh vdi hinh chdp, mang dang ve blip mang - noi dai dien eho cae vi than la "Meru " - dinh nui cao nhat;
"Amalaka" la dia ranh/ngan each giua sikhara va chdp thap, dupe dat d dinh eao cua sikhara;
"Kalasha " la dinh trdn ciia den thap An Dp giao thudng lam bang kim loai hoac da.
Cac kilu phong each kien tnic chinh ciia din thap Hindu d An Dp gan vdi 3 phong each: Phong each Nagara (phong each Bac An), vdi mai den cd cau tnic hinh dang nhiing dudng cong mem mai, vuon len; Phong each Dravida (phong each Nam An), mai den cd cau tnic hinh kim tu thap dinh bang; Phong each Vasara (phong each Trung An) ket hop ca hai phong each Nagara va phong each Dravida.
- Kit cdu khu thdp
Trong mpt nhdm thap Cham thdng thudng bao gom cac loai thap:
+ Thap chinh (Kalan) nam d giiia va dai dien cho dinh niii Mem - noi ngu tri eua than linh;
-+- Thap cong (Gopura) cd vi tri trudc thap chinh;
+ Thap nha dai (Mandapa) - noi ddn tiep khach hanh huong;
+ Thap nha kho (Kosagraha) - noi cat giii do te Ie;
+ Cac thap phu thd cac than phuong hudng (Dikpalakas) hoac cac than tinh tii (Grahas).
Ngoai ra, cac khu din thap dupe xay dung trong giai doan sau ciia lich sir Cham Pa tir Binh Dinh den Binh Thuan cd nhiing cau tnic khae biet nhu nhdm 3 thap - khu vuc thap Duang Long; nhdm 5 thap - khu vuc thap Pokldngrai.
Hinh 2: Sff do nhom thap My So-n B,C,D Cac cau tnic ciia ngdi den Hindu giao d An Dp (eac ngdi den da cd cau tnic nhat dinh va cd nien dai khoang niia sau the ky VII) nhu sau:
- Xet phuang dien mat bdng
Cau tnic chinh cua ngdi den duac gpi la Vimana, trong dd bao gdm hai phan: phan tren cimg cua Vimana dupe biet den nhu Sikhara (da de cap d tren) va phan dudi nam ben trong Vimana dupe gpi Garbhagriha.
Hinh 3: Sff do mat bang cua den thap Hindu giao if An Dp
Nghien ciru An Bp va Chau A. So 8 - 2018
"Garbhagriha " la budng trong ciing ciia mpt ngoi den - noi cac vi than cu tni. Mat bang cua budng chu yeu la hinh vuong va hudng ra phia Ddng.
"Pradakshina " la ldi hanh le (hanh lang kin ben ngoai garbhagriha). Cac tin do di bp xung quanh cae vi than theo chieu kim ddng hd, the hien sir tdn kinh vdi cac vj than.
"Mandapa " la nha dai (gan vdi he thong cot) d phia trudc cua garbhagriha, la noi cho cac tin do hat giao ca, tung kinh; thuc hien thien hoac quan sat cac linh muc thuc hien cac nghi le. Ngoai ra, nha dai cdn la noi bieu dien cho cac dieu miia tdn giao. Trong mpt sd cau triic ngoi den xay dung sdm, Mandapa la cau tnic tach biet vdi thanh dia.
"Antarala" la buong trung gian giiia thanh dia va khu nha dai. Day eiing chinh la ranh gidi vdi ngoi den chinh ben trong.
"Ardhamandapa" dupe biet den nhu la cong trudc (cd mai che) hay la thap cdng nam ngay ldi giiia dan vao ngdi den chinh.
Ddi khi, thap cdng kha hoanh trang va long lay the hien ranh gidi cho khu den. Yeu to nay dupe tim thay trong nhiing ngoi den d phia Nam An Dp.
Nhin chung, ve cau tnic tdng the, cac cdng trinh kha tucmg ddng giiia cac den thap d Cham Pa va d An Dp. Tuy nhien, cac thap Cham cd sir khac biet trong each sap xep cac cong trinh chinhva cac cong trinh phu.
2.2. Mo tip trang tri
Tdng the thap Cham dupe xem la mdt tac pham nghe thuat Irong ITnh vuc dieu khac. Trong nhiing giai doan khac nhau, nghe thuat dieu khac thap Cham chiu anh hudng ciia cac nen van hda khac nhau nhu An Dp, Khcrmer, Java (Indonesia), Dai Viet the hien d nhu'ng mdc Idn: My Son, Hoa Lai,
Ddng Duong, Tra Kieu, Thap M l m , Pokldngrai. Cu the: dau an Chan Lap trong phong each My Son E l ; su anh hudng cua Java trong phong each Tra Kieu, nghe thuat Angkok trong phong each thap Mam... Vi the ehiing tao sy khac biet ddi vdi md tip trang tri eua eac den thap d An Dp.
Tren than cac thap Cham dupe trang tri kha tinh vi. Mac dii, thap cd the dupe xem nhu mdt khoi dac nhung cd cam giac nhe nhang sdng dpng va cd the v u o n cao. Sir trang tri vdi manh ghep sa thach hoac sy cham trd tren gach vdi nhieu hinh mau khac nhau tir cac yeu td thien nhien cho den cac vi than trong An Dp giao nhu: hoa la, hinh ngudi, ddng vat, hoac tien nii Apsara, chim than Garuda, bd than N a n d i n . . . Cach thiic cham tro tren gach la su dpc dao ma cac nghe sT Cham the hien.
Dieu nay ciing khong thay nhieu d khu vuc Ddng Nam A va A n Dp.
Vdi cac den thap Hindu giao d An Dp, nghe thuat dieu khac da dat dupe nhiing thanh tuu dang kinh ngac ca ve so lupng lan chat lupng. So lupng tac pham dieu khae doi khi phii kin cac cong trinh, tao su khac biet cho den thap Hindu giao. Chii de trang tri kha tucmg ddng vdi thap Cham (nhu de cap d tren). Ngoai ra, eac biic tupng da cdn the hien canh sinh hoat eua ngudi dan An Dp tir sy sang trpng trong hoang cung cho den canh ngudi dan lao ddng. Tuy nhien, su khac biet ldn nhat d day la cac tac pham the hien
"tinh due" rat ldn. Vi du, khu den Khajuraho dupe xem la ngdi den cua su hoan lac.
N h u vay, nghe thuat dieu k h i c tren nhutig den thap Hindu giao d Cham Pa va An Dp cd nhiing chu de trang tri kha t m o n g
Le Hong Vucmg. Sir khde biet trong he thong den thdp Hindu gido . ddng va the hien rd d nhiing biic tupng thd
cac vi than nham phuc vu nhu cau tam linh va eac yeu td mang tinh t y nhien. Tuy nhien, van hda Cham khong dimg lai d sy thira hudng, ngudi Cham da phat trien nghe thuat dieu khac Ien mpt dinh cao va bd sung nhiing yeu td mang tinh ban dia trong timg tac pham dieu khac gach va da. Cd nhirng hpc gia nhan dinh rang.- "Ngu&i Chdm Id bdc thdy trong nghe thuat dieu khac". Hp da de lai cho nhan loai nhung tuyet tac. Minh chiing cho dieu nay la he thdng tac pham dupe thu thap tir cac den thap Cham d Bao tang Cham (Da Nang).
2.3. Chat lieu xay dung
Cae vat lieu xay dung cita den thap Cham chu yen la: gach, da, go, gom dat nung. Trong dd, gach la chat lieu chii yeu d hau het cac den thap mien Trung Viet Nam tir Thira ThiSn Hue den Binh Thuan. Gach da tao nen nhiing den thap +ham nghiem ky vT. Dong thdi, gach Cham la yeu td dac biet so vdi he thdng gach cita cac dat nudc lan can'. Theo mpt ket qua nghien ciiu tir mau gach cua 50 den thap, gach Cham cd nhiing dac diem nhu sau: c6 dp ciing be mat trung binh, cudng dp nen dat lOOdaN/cm^, cudng dp udn cao, dp hiit nudc cao, dp mai mdn cao, it ran mit. Chinh nhiing c a sd dd, gach la vat lieu dap iing tdt va ben vung eho nhirng cdng trinh den thap Cham. Them niia, vdi dp min va dai giiip cac nghe nhan Cham cd the tao nhirng tac pham tuyet my khdng khac gi nhu tren nhiing cdng trinh gd.
Vat lieu thii hai dupe de cap den la da.
Da dupe dua vao cac thap Cham nhu mot phan phu vdi nhiing nai can chiu lye nhu
khung cua, muc dfch trang tri nhu nhiing phan tren cua thap nhu tam la nhi va cac be thd ben trong den thap.
Chat lieu go dupe biet den la mdt chat lieu xay dung nhiing thdi ky dSu cua den thap Cham gan vdi My Son. Doi vdi chat liSu gdm nung chu yeu diing lam ngdi hoac cac vat trang tri cho den thap.
So vdi cac den thap Cham, cac vat lieu gan vdi cac den thap Hindu giao d An Dp co tinh da dang va thich iing vdi nhiing vung khac nhau. Hay ndi each khac, cac ngdi den dupe xay dung vdi cac loai vat lieu phu thupc vao su san cd tai dia phuang. Cac vat lieu khac nhau nhu: tir gd ngam bim, thach cao, gach hoac da. Vat lieu ddng mot vai tro quan trpng trong tdng the ve tham my, ky thuat xay dung va tao tac hoanh trang cho ngdi den. Cac ngdi den dupe xay dyng trong giai doan dau ciia lich su den thap Hindu giao tai An Dp cd cau tnic bang vat lieu kem ben nhu go, gach hoac thach eao. Sau do, chiing da hau nhu bien mat hoac dupe xay dyng nhu mdt sd yeu td nhd trong tdng the,
Vdi chat lieu da, cac den thap d An Dp cd the chia lam 2 dang chinh: Kien tnic da cat (Rock Cut) va Kien tnic da xay (Stone Built). Nhdm kien tnic da cat dupe hinh thanh bang each khac vao da ty nhien nhu khoet vao trong rang niii. Cau tnic dupe tao ra bang each due deo de hinh thanh nhung md hinh ki^n tnic phii hop. Nhdm kien tnic da xay la kieu dupe xay dung tir nhiing phien da rieng Ie de hinh thanh nen kieu kien true mong mudn.
Tdm lai, tir nhung phan tich tren, cd the thay cac nghe nhan An da tao ra nhung tac
' Tran Bd Viet (2001).
12
Nghien ciru An Dp va Chau A. So 8 - 2018 pham tuyet vdi tren chat lieu da va chat lieu
gach la mpt trong nhiing dac trung de phan biet den thap Cham vdi nhiing he thdng den thap khae, la c a sd de nghe nhan Cham thda siic sang tao nghe thuat.
2.4. Ky thuat xdy dung
Day chinh van de duoc tranh luan trong thdi gian dai va chua cd hdi ket cua cae nha nghien ciiu cdng trinh thap Cham ed. Dae biet la giai thich vi sao giiia nhiing vien gach lai tudng chirng nhu lien kbit va khdng ed mdt chat ket dinh nao. Dudi day la mdt s6 gia thuyet cho viec xay dung den thap Cham:
- Xay dyng bang he thong gach mdc, sau dd tien hanh nung ciia ca mpt he thdng thap;
- Xay dyng bang gach da nung vdi viia va keo thyc vat.
Da sd eac nha nghien eiiu cho rang viec xay dyng thap bang gach nung san va sir dung chat ket dinh la nhya cay Dau Rai (Diptero carpus Alastus) va ciing cd the diing mat. Ngoai ra, chat ket dinh cdn dupe de cap vdi mpt so gia thuyet nhu: nhya cay 6 dudc, viia vdi hau trpn vdi nudc cay Dau Rai (tao chat ket dinh - minh ehiing thap Porome (Ninh Thuan).
Ky thuat gan ket nhiing chat lieu khac nhau trong mpt he thdng thap la van de kha phiic tap. Nghe nhan Cham da thanh cdng trong tao tac nay, the hien ro net nhat la sy lien k i t giiia chat lieu gach va da trong cimg mpt thap chinh (kalan). Sy Hen ket da tao ra nhirng tac pham dpc dao. Hai loai vat lieu hinh thanh nen nhiing hpa tiet va de tai trang tri hoan hao ma nhung den thap khac khong cd dupe ngay ca cac den thap d An Dp.
Vdi eac den thap d An Dp, ky thuat xay dyng tren mat bang dupe tinh toan rat ky
luang nhu da trinh bay d phan binh do eua thap. Cac nha thiet ke da tuan thu cac nguyen tae: khoa hpc truyen thdng, toan hpc, hpi hpa va dja ly. Dieu nay cho thay ky thuat tuyet vdi cita kien tnic su An Dp liic bay gid.
Ky thuat xay dyng gan vdi he thong xa ngang va he thdng tay dd, don chia. Trong he thdng xa ngang, each thiie td chiic sap xep da dang gan vol phuang true hoanh (he thdng dam ngang va lanh td) va true tung (he thdng tru va cot ap tudng) tao sy virng chai cho cdng trinh. Mai Ipp dupe dat nhihig phien da theo p h u a n g ngang dupe hd trp tir xa dam va tudng.
N h u vay, cae den thap d An Dp cho thay su chat che va tinh ky thuat cao trong he thdng xay dung cac den da cdn vdi thap Cham cho thay ky thuat xay dyng gach van cdn la nhiing bi an.
2.5. He thdng thd tu-
He thong thd t u la rapt chit diem quan trpng cua cac den thap ciia tat ca tdn giao khong chi rieng vdi Hindu giao. Cac den thap Hindu giao d An Dp va Cham Pa la thd eac vi than Hindu giao. Tuy nhien, da c6 sy chuyen bien trong y nghia van hda thd t u tai den thap Cham so vdi cac den thap Hindu giao tai An Dp. Trong giai doan dau, eac den thap Cham dupe xay dyng de thd cac vi than. Theo tu lieu tir cac van bia cho thay cac ngdi den ket hpp giiia vuong quyen va than quyen trong giai doan tiep theo hay ndi each khac cac den thap thd than ket hpp vdi thd eac vi vua. My San la nhdm kien tnic dau tien the hien cho hinh thai nay. Dieu nay cang the hien rd net trong nhiing giai doan cuoi gan vdi cae he thdng thap Pokldngrai, Porome. Cac he thdng thap nay ngoai thd ty cae vi vua cdn gan lien vdi thd ty hoang hau.
Le Hong Vu'ong. Su khac biet trong he thong den thdp Hindu gido Ngoai ra, qua khao cd va trimg tu tai khu vye
My Son, cac chuyen gia phat hien ra thap B6 va C3 cd ngdi md dupe ghep bang nhiing phien da sa thach. Tuy nhien, xet tong the B6 va C3 la nhiing khu thap phu nen viec coi hinh thiic nay la den thap - lang mp thi chua dupe cac nha nghien ciru khang dinh. Nhung do ciing la c a sd de cd the ndi rang vuong quyen va than quyen ket hpp vdi nhau. Than quyen ed vai trd ldn lao trong ddi sdng tinh than so vdi vuong quyen.
Thong qua 16 van bia dupe tim thay d My Son, tat ca chiing deu de cap den than Siva. Khdng ehi vay, nhieu he thdng bia ky khac dpc mien Trung minh ehiing Siva la vi than chinh dupe thd d cac thap Cham. Bilu tupng cua than Siva the hien qua Linga va Yoni cung dat tren be thd. Cd mpt su "dong dieu " trong van hda ban dia la tin ngudng
"due - cdi" va thd ngau tupng Linga - Yoni.
Tir mdt Hindu giao da than dupe thd tu t h i hien rat ro d An Dp lai dupe "Chdm hoa"
thanh Siva giao tai Cham Pa.
Ket luan
Tren tinh than tiep thu truyen thdng cua Hindu giao ngudi Cham tim thay "dnh sdng", tim dupe cai rieng, tinh ban dja trong nghe thuat xay dyng den thap Cham so vdi nhiing din thap Hindu tai An Dp. Den thap Cham tdn tai vTnh hang theo thdi gian la tai san khong thua kem vdi b4t ky nen van minh cd nao trong khu vuc.
T a i lieu t h a m k h a o
1. Inra Jaka (2017), Hdnh trinh vdn hoa Chdm, Nxb- Van hda Dan tdc.
2. Lg Dinh Phung (2004), KiSn triic - Dieu khac a My San Di sdn vdn hoa the gi&i, Nxb. Khoa hpc Xa hpi.
3. Le Dinh Phung, Nguyen Xu3n Hoa (2003), Di tich vdn hoa Chdm & Thira Thien - Hue, Nxb. Thuan Hda.
4. Thanh Quyen, Phuang Tri, Do Uyen, Bao Vy, Kien true den thd Hindu gido, https://eviluriko.wordpress.com, ngay truy cap 1/5/2018.
5. Ho Anh Thai, Khajurajo - Mot ngoi den doc ddo trong vdn hoa An Do, http://www.vanhoahoc.vn/nghien-cuu/thu- vien-so-sach-anh-video/thu-vien-video, ngay truy cap 1/5/2018.
6. Nguyen Dinh Toan (2014), Kien triic Viet Nam qua cdc th&i dai, Nxb. Xay dyng.
7. Trkn Ba Viet (2001), "Nghien ciiu ky thuat xay dung thap Cham d miln Trung Viet Nam", Hpi thao qudc te Mot the ky khdo co hoc Viet Nam.
8. Approach Guides, Hindu temples of South India,
http://www.approachguides.com/ebook- previews/Preview-ApproachGuides-lndia- South-Hindu-Temples.pdf, ngay truy cap 1/5/2018.
