Thư viện số Văn Lang: The Dynamics of Opportunity in America: Evidence and Perspectives

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Editors

Irwin Kirsch is Tyler Chair in Large-Scale Assessment and Director of the Center for Global Assessment at Educational Testing Service (ETS). He also serves as Project Director of ETS’s Opportunity in America initiative.

Henry Braun is Boisi Professor of Education and Public Policy in the Lynch School of Education and Director of the Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Education Policy at Boston College. He also serves as Project Co-Director of ETS’s Opportunity in America initiative.

Contributors

Bruce Baker is Professor at the Graduate School of Education at Rutgers University and maintains blogs on school fi nance and educational policy.

Jared Bernstein is a Senior Fellow at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.

He previously served as Chief Economist and Economic Adviser to Vice President Joe Biden.

Danielle Farrie is Research Director of the Education Law Center in Newark, New Jersey.

Chrystia Freeland is the Canadian Minister of International Trade and Member of Parliament for University-Rosedale, Toronto, author of Plutocrats: The Rise of the New Global Super-rich and the Fall of Everyone Else , and journalist.

About the Editors and Contributors

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Harry J. Holzer is Professor at the McCourt School of Public Policy at Georgetown University and is an Institute Fellow at the American Institutes for Research. He previously served as Chief Economist at the U.S. Department of Labor.

Carl Kaestle is University Professor of Education, History, and Public Policy emeritus at Brown University.

Ishwar Khatiwada is a Labor Economist at the Center for Labor Markets and Policy at Drexel University.

Robert I. Lerman is an Institute Fellow at the Urban Institute, Emeritus Professor of Economics at American University, and a Research Fellow at IZA in Bonn, Germany. He is also the Founder of the American Institute for Innovative Apprenticeship.

Douglas S. Massey is the Henry G. Bryant Professor of Sociology and Public Affairs at Princeton University’s Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs.

Leslie McCall is a Professor in the Department of Sociology and Faculty Fellow at the Institute for Policy Research at Northwestern University.

Jennifer A. O’Day is an Institute Fellow of the American Institutes for Research and is the Founder and Chair of the California Collaborative on District Reform.

Richard V. Reeves is a Senior Fellow in Economic Studies, Co-Director of the Center on Children and Families, and Editor-in-Chief of the Social Mobility Memos blog at the Brookings Institution.

David G. Sciarra is Executive Director of the Education Law Center in Newark, New Jersey.

Timothy M. (Tim) Smeeding is the Arts and Sciences Distinguished Professor of Public Affairs and Economics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He was previously Director of the Institute for Research on Poverty at Wisconsin-Madison.

Marshall S. Smithis a Senior Scholar at the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, a former Dean and Professor at Stanford, and a former Under Secretary and Acting Deputy Secretary at the U.S. Department of Education in the Clinton administration. He is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Education.

About the Editors and Contributors

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Andrew M. Sum is Professor Emeritus of Economics at Northeastern University in Boston. He was previously the Director of the Center for Labor Market Studies.

Jonathan Tannen is a Doctoral Candidate in the Urban and Population clusters of the Woodrow Wilson School and the Offi ce of Population Research at Princeton University.

About the Editors and Contributors

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List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Black-White residential dissimilarity and Black

and White poverty rates in metropolitan areas ... 15 Fig. 2.2 Segregation trends in the most and least segregated

metropolitan areas ... 17 Fig. 2.3 Percentage of households earning less than $30,000

in neighborhoods of metropolitan areas (by various

race/income groups) ... 19 Fig. 2.4 Percentage of households earning more than $120,000

in neighborhoods of metropolitan areas (by various

race/income groups) ... 21 Fig. 2.5 Percentage of individuals 25 and over with a college

degree in neighborhoods of metropolitan areas

(by various race/income groups) ... 22 Fig. 2.6 Potential home wealth in neighborhoods of metropolitan

areas (by various race/income groups) ... 23 Fig. 2.7 Relationship between racial segregation by neighborhood

to racial segregation by school district across states ... 24 Fig. 2.8 Relationship between racial segregation and gap

in percentage affl uent between poor Black and affl uent

White neighborhoods ... 25 Fig. 2.9 Relationship between racial segregation and gap

in potential home wealth between poor Black

and affl uent White neighborhoods ... 26 Fig. 2.10 Percentage of households earning less than $30,000 in

neighborhoods of hypersegregated metropolitan areas

(by various race/income groups) ... 27 Fig. 2.11 Percentage of households earning more than $120,000 in

neighborhoods of hypersegregated metropolitan areas

(by various race/income groups) ... 28

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Fig. 2.12 Percentage of individuals 25 and over with a college degree in neighborhoods of hypersegregated metropolitan

areas (by various race/income groups) ... 29

Fig. 2.13 Potential home wealth in neighborhoods of hypersegregated metropolitan areas (by various race/income groups) ... 30

Fig. 4.1 Conceptual map of fi scal inputs & real resources ... 108

Fig. 4.2 Input price adjusted revenue and spending ... 114

Fig. 4.3 Predicted state and local revenues over time by state ... 115

Fig. 4.4 Relationship between effort and revenue ... 117

Fig. 4.5 Spending levels and staffi ng levels 2011–2012 ... 124

Fig. 4.6 Relating total staffi ng and class size ... 125

Fig. 4.7 Spending levels and competitive wages ... 126

Fig. 4.8 Spending fairness and staffi ng fairness 2011–2012 ... 126

Fig. 4.9 Change in class size for 1 unit change in relative spending and relative poverty ... 128

Fig. 4.10 Change in salary competitiveness for 1 unit change in relative spending ... 128

Fig. 5.1 Distribution of real wage and salary earnings for full-year, full-time males workers aged 18–64 as compared to 1961–2000 ... 139

Fig. 5.2 Distribution of real wage and salary earnings for full-year, full-time male workers aged 16 and over, as compared to 2000 ... 140

Fig. 5.3 Cumulative change in real annual wages, by wage group, 1979–2010 ... 141

Fig. 5.4 Changes in real wage levels of full-time U.S. workers by sex and education, 1963–2012 ... 142

Fig. 5.5 Problem-solving profi ciency among younger adults (age 16–24) and older adults (age 55–65) (OECD 2013) ... 143

Fig. 5.6 Underutilization rates among U.S. workers (16 and over) by educational attainment, January 2012–August 2013 averages (in %) ... 154

Fig. 6.1 Real hourly wage trends by decile, 1979–2013 ... 170

Fig. 6.2 Real hourly wage trends: men ... 171

Fig. 6.3 Real hourly wage trends: women ... 171

Fig. 6.4 Changes in real wage levels of full-time U.S. workers by sex and education, 1963–2012 ... 173

Fig. 6.5 Real annual earnings by wage percentile, 1979–2012 ... 174

Fig. 6.6 First principal component: Five series, nominal growth ... 177

Fig. 6.7 Compensation as share of national income, 1959–2013 ... 179

Fig. 6.8 Percent of time unemployment has been “Too High” ... 185

Fig. 6.9 Change in real wages by wage level given 30 % decline in unemployment rate ... 185

List of Figures

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Fig. 6.10 Trade defi cit/GDP and manufacturing compensation,

1949–2013 ... 186 Fig. 6.11 Growth of the top 1 % income advantage

and the college wage premium, 1979–2011 ... 188 Fig. 7.1 Measuring the unemployed, underemployed, the hidden

unemployed, and the underutilized labor force ... 199 Fig. 7.2 Unemployment rates among workers (16 and over)

by educational attainment, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ... 202 Fig. 7.3 Unemployment rates among workers (16 and over)

by household income, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ... 203 Fig. 7.4 Unemployment rates among workers (16 and over)

by educational attainment and household income,

2013–2014 averages (in %) ... 204 Fig. 7.5 Underemployment rates among employed workers

(16 and over) in 2013–2014 by educational attainment,

annual averages (in %) ... 206 Fig. 7.6 Underemployment rates among employed workers

(16 and over) in 2013–2014 by household income,

annual averages (in %) ... 207 Fig. 7.7 Underemployment rates among workers (16 and over)

2013–2014 annual averages (in %) ... 208 Fig. 7.8 Hidden unemployment rates among workers

(16 and over) in 2013–2014 by educational attainment,

annual averages (in %) ... 210 Fig. 7.9 Hidden unemployment rates among the adjusted labor

force (16 and over) by household income, 2013–2014

annual averages (in %) ... 211 Fig. 7.10 Hidden unemployment rates among workers (16 and over)

2013–2014, annual averages (in %) ... 211 Fig. 7.11 Numbers of underutilized workers (16 and over), all

and by type of labor market problem, 2013–2014

averages (in millions) ... 212 Fig. 7.12 Labor force underutilization rates among workers

(16 and over) by educational attainment, 2013–2014

annual averages (in %) ... 213 Fig. 7.13 Labor force underutilization rates among workers

(16 and over) by household income, 2013–2014 annual

averages (in %) ... 215 Fig. 7.14 Labor underutilization rates among workers (16 and over)

2013–2014 annual averages (in %) ... 215

List of Figures

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Fig. 7.15 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates of low-income, high school dropouts and affl uent adults with a master’s degree or higher by race-ethnic

group, 2013–2014 annual averages (in %) ... 217 Fig. 7.16 Trends in the employment/population ratios of teens

and young adults (20–24, 25–29) in 1999–2000

and 2013–2014 (in %) ... 220 Fig. 7.17 Percentage point increases in labor underutilization

rates among selected educational and household income

groups of workers, 1999–2000 to 2013–2014 ... 223 Fig. 7.18 Poverty rates of persons 16 and older in 2012–2013

by labor underutilization status in March 2013–

March 2014 ... 227 Fig. 7.19 Poverty rates of underutilized U.S. workers

(16 and over) by educational attainment, March 2013–

March 2014 (in %) ... 227 Fig. 7.20 Poverty rates of workers (16 and over) by underutilized

status and educational attainment, March 2013 and March

2014 (in %) ... 228 Fig. 7.21 Poverty/near poverty rates of workers (16 and over)

in 2012–2013 by labor underutilization status,

March 2013–March 2014 ... 230 Fig. 7.22 Poverty/near poverty rates of underutilized U.S. workers

(16 and over) by educational attainment, March 2013–

March 2014 (in %) ... 230 Fig. 7.23 Poverty/near-poverty rates of selected groups of workers

(16 and over) by underutilized status and educational

attainment, March 2013–March 2014 (in %) ... 231 Fig. 7.24 Low-income rates of workers (16 and over)

in 2012–2013 by labor underutilization status,

March 2013–March 2014 ... 232 Fig. 7.25 Low-income rates of underutilized workers

(16 and over) by educational attainment,

March 2013–March 2014 (in %) ... 233 Fig. 7.26 Low-income rates of selected educational attainment/labor

underutilized groups of workers (16 and over),

March 2013–March 2014 (in %) ... 234 Fig. 8.1 A model of intergenerational transmission

of advantage by life stage ... 260 Fig. 8.2 After-tax and transfer disposable income for

households with children: mean income in bottom,

middle, and top quintiles, 1979–2010 ... 269 Fig. 8.3 Changes in real wage levels of full-time U.S. workers

by sex and education, 1963–2012 ... 271

List of Figures

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Fig. 8.4 Never-married mothers by education attainment ... 277

Fig. 8.5 Unmarried mothers by mothers’ education ... 278

Fig. 8.6 Racial and ethnic cognitive disparities at ages 9 and 24 months ... 279

Fig. 8A.1 Disparities in cognitive and socio-behavioral outcomes by income level at 9 and 24 months ... 286

Fig. 8A.2 Disparities in cognitive and socio-behavioral outcomes by education of mother ... 287

Fig. 12.1 American concerns about inequality, 1987–2012 ... 422

Fig. 12.2 American perceptions of occupational pay and pay inequality ... 423

Fig. 12.3 American and international perceptions of economic opportunity ... 424

Fig. 12.4 Changes in perceptions of economic opportunity, 1987–2012 ... 425

Fig. 12.5 Changes in perceptions of economic opportunity, 2001–2012 ... 426

Fig. 12.6 Adjusted trend in index of concerns about inequality (scaled 0–1) ... 427

Fig. 13.1 Absolute mobility: share of Americans who exceed their parents’ family income ... 447

Fig. 13.2 Relative intergenerational income mobility ... 448

Fig. 13.3 Social mobility matrix: college graduate ... 449

Fig. 13.4 Social mobility matrix: less than high school education ... 449

Fig. 13.5 Social mobility matrix: Black Americans ... 450

Fig. 13.6 Social mobility matrix: White Americans ... 451

Fig. 13.7 Social mobility matrix: children of never-married mothers ... 451

Fig. 13.8 Social mobility matrix: children of continuously married mothers ... 452

List of Figures

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List of Tables

Table 3.1 Trends in desegregation, 1950–2000: percentage of Black

students in 90–100 % non-White schools, by region ... 48

Table 3.2 Funding of special education costs, percent shares, 1983 through 2010 ... 59

Table 3.3 Main NAEP reading scores, 1992–2013: White/Black and White/Hispanic gaps ... 79

Table 3.4 Main NAEP mathematics scores, 1992–2013: White/Black and White/Hispanic gaps ... 79

Table 3.5 Federal, state, and local share: public elementary and secondary school budgets ... 88

Table 4.1 Numbers of states where funding fairness ratio has improved ... 117

Table 4.2 Spending fairness indices for select years ... 119

Table 4.3 Summary of changes in wage competitiveness ... 120

Table 4.4 Teacher/nonteacher wage ratios for select years ... 121

Table 4.5 Summary of staffi ng level changes over time ... 122

Table 4.6 Predicted staffi ng ratios for select years ... 123

Table 4.7 Fixed effects model of pupil-to-teacher ratio fairness ... 127

Table 4A.1 Data sources, years, and measures ... 131

Table 4A.2 Summary data by state ... 132

Table 5.1 Percent of 24- to 28-year-old adults in the U.S. in 2008 without a high school diploma or GED by ASVAB test score quintile and family’s income in their teenaged years in 1997 ... 143

Table 5.2 Comparisons of the unemployment rates of U.S. adults 16 and older by educational attainment, 2000 and 2012–2013 (in %) ... 155

Table 5.3 Wages for full-time employment by educational attainment, 1979–2009 ... 156

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Table 6.1 Real annual earnings, 1947–2012 ... 175 Table 7.1 Comparisons of the unemployment rates of adults

16 and older by educational attainment, 1999–2000

and 2013–2014 (in %) ... 205 Table 7.2 Comparisons of the underemployment rates of employed

adults by household income and educational attainment

in 1999–2000 and 2013–2014 (in %) ... 208 Table 7.3 Labor force underutilization rates of workers 16

and older by educational attainment, 1999–2000

and 2013–2014 (in %) ... 214 Table 7.4 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates

of adults 16 and older by educational attainment

and household income groups, by gender and race-ethnic

group, 2013–2014 annual averages (in %) ... 216 Table 7.5 Predicated probabilities for selected individuals

16 and older of being an underutilized member of the

nation’s labor force in 2013–2014 (in %) ... 218 Table 7.6 Employment-population ratio of 16- to 24-year-old

by school enrollment status, 1999–2000

and 2013–2014 averages ... 221 Table 7.7 Predicted probabilities of selected young adult

labor force participants being underutilized

in 2013–2014 (in %) ... 222 Table 7.8 Labor force underutilization rates of U.S. workers

(16 and older) in selected educational attainment and household income groups in 1999–2000

and 2013–2014 (in %) ... 223 Table 7.9 The annual money incomes equivalent to the poverty

line, the poverty/near poverty line, and the low-income

threshold for selected individuals and families, 2013 ... 225 Table 7.10 Poverty rates of persons 16 and older in 2012–2013

by labor force underutilization status in March 2013–

March 2014, total and by gender and educational

attainment level (2-year averages) ... 226 Table 7.11 Poverty/near poverty rates of 16 and older persons

in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014, total and by gender

and educational attainment level ... 229 Table 7.12 Low-income rates of 16 and older persons in 2012–2013

by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014, total and by gender and educational

attainment level ... 235

List of Tables

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Table 7A.1 Labor force underutilization rates of persons 16 and older by household income level, educational

attainment: 2013–2014 averages (in %) ... 236 Table 7A.2 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates

of workers lacking a high school diploma with those holding a master’s or higher degree, all and by gender

and race-ethnic group, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ... 237 Table 7A.3 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates of workers

from low- income families (under $20,000) with those from the most affl uent ($150,000 and over), all and by

gender and race-ethnic group, 2013–2014 (in %) ... 238 Table 7A.4 Comparisons of the labor underutilization rates

of workers from low- income families lacking a high school diploma to workers from the most affl uent families with a master’s or higher degree, all and by gender

and race-ethnic group, 2013–2014 (in %) ... 239 Table 7A.5 Labor force underutilization rates of men 16 and older

by household income level, educational attainment,

2013–2014 averages (in %) ... 239 Table 7A.6 Labor force underutilization rates of women 16

and older by household income level, educational

attainment, 2013–2014 averages (in %) ... 239 Table 7A.7 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older

by family income level, educational attainment level

for Asian adults, 2013–2014 averages ... 240 Table 7A.8 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older

for Black adults, 2013–2014 averages ... 240 Table 7A.9 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older

for Hispanic adults, 2013–2014 averages ... 240 Table 7A.10 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older

for Native American/other adults, 2013–2014 averages ... 241 Table 7A.11 Labor force underutilization rates of 16 and older

for White adults, 2013–2014 averages ... 241 Table 7A.12 Poverty rates of 16 and older persons in 2012–2013

by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014 by selected race and educational

attainment level ... 241 Table 7A.13 Poverty/near poverty rates of 16 and older persons

in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014 by selected race

and educational attainment level ... 242

List of Tables

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Table 7A.14 Low-income rates of 16 and older persons in 2012–2013 by labor force underutilization status in March 2013 and March 2014 by selected race and educational

attainment level ... 243 Table 7B.1 Unemployment rates of workers by gender and race-ethnic

group in selected educational attainment and family income groups, 2013–2014 (in %) ... 245 Table 7C.1 Defi nitions of the variables appearing in the logistic

probability model of being an underutilized labor

force participant ... 247 Table 7C.2 Findings of the logistic probability model of the

underutilized status of individual members of the

labor force in 2013–2014 ... 248 Table 7E.1 Findings of the logistic probability model of the

underutilized status of individual members of the

young adult labor force under age 30 in 2013–2014 ... 250 Table 12A.1 Support of selected policies related to inequality

and opportunity ... 439 Table 13.1 Dashboard of opportunity “Leading Indicators”

in United Kingdom ... 456 Table 13.2 The Colorado opportunity framework ... 457 Table 13.3 Indicators used in the U.K., Colorado, the Social

Genome Model, and Reeves’ paper

on “Five Strong Starts” ... 462

List of Tables

Thư viện số Văn Lang: The Dynamics of Opportunity in America: Evidence and Perspectives

Contents

Editors

Contributors

About the Editors and Contributors

List of Figures

List of Tables