In contrast, few mammals have been documented as successful species in urban areas (Macdonald and Newdick 1982; Septon et al. 1995; Luniak 2004). Luck et al. 2013) and can completely repel some clutter-tolerant bat species (Gonsalves et al.
High Versus Lower Levels of Urbanisation
We compared both models based on the reported effect size and assessed the proportion of heterogeneity of bat responses between high and intermediate urban development (τ2 highly urban- τ2 small urban/τ2 highly urban). This species-specific variation in the intermediate degree of urbanization (τ2= 7.74) accounted for 21 % of the variation in the areas with high urban development (τ2= 9.80).
Phylogeny Versus Functional Ecology
None of the functional classifications, food, foraging mode, and foraging area, revealed a significant association with bat persistence in urban areas. The total effect of urbanization on insectivorous bats based on a random effect model (RE model) is given at the bottom of the corresponding figure.
Contrasting the Effects between North and South America and Europe, Asia
Adaptability of Species to Urban Areas: General Trends, Species-Specific Differences and Future
Indeed, some of the publications in our meta-analysis dataset report a higher bat diversity, activity (Hourigan et al. 2010; Threlfall et al. b) and feeding activity (Jung and Kalko 2011; Threlfall et al. 2012a) and the ability to forage around street lights ( see Rowse et al., Ch.
Gehrt SD, Chelsvig JE (2003) Bat activity in an urban landscape: patterns at the landscape and microhabitat scales. Threlfall CG, Law B, Banks PB (2012a) Influence of landscape structure and human modifications on insect biomass and bat foraging activity in an urban landscape.
Bats and Roads
Introduction
- Bat Life History
- Bat Conservation Status
Furthermore, the few existing studies of road impacts on bats have all been conducted in North America and Europe. A significant number of the more than 1200 extant bat species are considered threatened (Racey and Entwistle 2003; Jones et al. 2009).
The Effects of Roads on Bats—Habitat Destruction, Fragmentation, Degradation and Collision Mortality
- The Barrier Effect
- Roadkill
- Habitat Degradation—Light, Noise and Chemical Pollution
- Species-Specific Effects
- Road Class and Speed
- Cumulative Effects, Extinction Debt and the Importance of Scale
- Secondary Effects—Infill and Increased Urban and Industrial Development
An effect of roads on genetic population structure has been found in several other mammal species (Frantz et al. 2012). Collection of roadkill carcasses by Russell et al. 2009) led to a conservative estimate of an annual mortality of 5% of bats in local roosts.
Can Roads Benefit Bats?
Many of the secondary effects of roads are more severe in the tropics (Laurance et al. 2009), where roads allow people easy access to remaining undisturbed habitats, which consequently suffer further degradation and an increase in hunting pressure. for bushmeat. , including bats. A very thorough discussion of the positive and negative effects of artificial light can be found in the chapter by Rowse et al.
Conservation in Principle: Avoidance, Mitigation, Compensation and Enhancement
In North America, bridges are frequently used by Brazilian free-tailed bats, Tadarida brasiliensis (e.g., Allen et al. 2011) and some other species (e.g., Bennett et al. 2008). Mainly minor roads can therefore be sites for foraging and work routes, but some species (e.g. Nyctalus leisleri, Waters et al. 1999) also use major roads if they are limited by suitable habitat, such as forest edges.
Conservation in Practice
- Under-the-Road Methods: Underpasses, Culverts and Other ‘Tunnels’
- Light Avoidance
- The Importance of Connectivity and the Maintenance of Existing Flightlines
- Habitat Improvement and Effective Landscape-Scale Planning
- Rail
Frantz AC, Berttouille S, Eloy MC et al (2012) Comparative landscape genetic analyzes show that a Belgian highway poses a gene flow barrier for red deer (Cervus elaphus), but not for wild boar (Sus scrofa). Jaeger JAG, Schwarz-von Raumer HG et al (2007) Time series of landscape fragmentation caused by transport infrastructure and urban development: a case study from Baden-Württemberg (Germany).
Responses of Tropical Bats to Habitat
Fragmentation, Logging, and Deforestation
Habitat Conversion: A Key Aspect of Global Change
Bats are valuable indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem health and respond to a variety of stressors associated with environmental change (Jones et al. 2009). However, the effects of land-use change on tropical species may exacerbate those of climate change, leading to challenges for long-term conservation efforts (Struebig et al. 2015), including those for bats.
Tropical Bats in a Changing World
Indeed, except for large areas of tropical forest in Papua New Guinea and in the Amazon and Congo basins, such a description accurately characterizes most tropical landscapes (Melo et al. 2013). A pan-tropical meta-analysis of land-use change studies points to the irreplaceable value of old-growth forests, but also highlights the high species diversity found in regenerating timber forests compared to secondary forests (Gibson et al. 2011).
Review Methodology
Biases in Our Understanding of Responses of Tropical Bats to Habitat Alteration
Geographic variation in this research effort (Fig. 4.2) is broadly similar to the pattern reported for multiple taxa across the tropics (Gibson et al. 2011). The colors in tropical countries represent the number of studies based on the pan-tropical analysis of the impact of disturbance and land conversion on birds, mammals, arthropods and plants by Gibson et al.
Responses at the Population and Assemblage Level .1 Habitat Fragmentation
- General Patterns
- Area and Isolation Effects
- Responses to Landscape Structure
- Spatial and Temporal Scale Dependence in Responses to Fragmentation
- Edge Effects
- Logging
- Secondary Forests and Succession
- Agroforestry Systems
- Tree Plantations
- Agriculture and Residual Tree Cover
Comprehensive assessments of the conservation value of secondary forests for bats in the Paleotropics are essentially lacking (but see Fukuda et al. 2009). The proportions of large frugivores increased with management intensity, in agreement with Pineda et al. (2005) findings.
Genetic Consequences
Further, studies show that sensitivity in this context is related to traits of individual species, such as mobility or breast habit. Increased research on a wider range of species with different ecological and life-history traits, ideally using high-resolution genetic markers such as microsatellites or single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).
Behavioral Responses
Studies that have assessed behavioral changes under habitat modification in terms of effects on temporal activity patterns have taken such a rigorous approach. More studies, especially in the Paleotropics, assessing the extent to which human-induced habitat change affects bat behavior in terms of roosting and foraging ecology.
Effects on Selected Species Interactions
Isolated fig trees in abandoned pastures are attractive to many fruit growers and can function as regeneration nuclei that effectively facilitate forest restoration (Guevara et al. 2004). However, effects were dependent on plant species (Quesada et al. 2004), making general predictions regarding the effects of habitat modification on the disruption of bat pollination difficult.
General Conclusions and Future Research Directions
Presley SJ, Willig MR, Saldanha LN et al (2009b) Reduced-impact logging has little effect on the temporal activity of herbivorous bats (Chiroptera) in the Amazon lowland. Quesada M, Herrerias-Diego Y, Lobo JA et al (2013) Long-term effects of habitat fragmentation on mating patterns and gene flow of a tropical dry forest tree, Ceiba aesculifolia (Malvaceae: Bombacoideae).
Insectivorous Bats and Silviculture
Balancing Timber Production and Bat Conservation
Introduction
Forest bats are mobile and, like forest birds, can use a large three-dimensional space for their living needs (Kroll et al. 2012). We focus on three broad areas: North America, Australia (including New Zealand), and Europe, and refer the reader to Meyer et al.
Major Forest Areas .1 North America
- Europe
- Australia
In the southern parts of Europe, coniferous forests (pines, spruces, junipers, cypresses, cedars), broad-leaved forests (oaks, chestnuts) and evergreen deciduous forests are the most important wooded habitats. Eucalyptus forests range from forests with a high diversity of eucalyptus species to forests dominated by one or a few species, the latter being most common in the tall wet forests of temperate southern Australia, including Tasmania (Florence 1996).
Complexity of Bat Habitat Needs .1 Mature, Large Diameter Trees
- Deadwood Availability and Hollow Tree Density
- Understory Vegetation
- Slope and Aspect
- Forest Edge
Considerable research into roost selection has been conducted since pioneering radiotracking studies in Australia (Lunney et al. 1988; Taylor and Savva 1988). Use of trails as linear edges in regenerating forest has also been reported in North America (Menzel et al. 2002).
Bat Responses to Silvicultural Treatments
- Logging
- Clearcut and Deferment Harvests
- Variable Retention Harvests
- Group Selection Harvests
- Salvage Logging
- Recovery Times After Timber Harvest
- Thinning Young Forests
- Harvest Exclusion Areas
- Plantations
- Prey
Humes et al. 1999) and southern oak-pine (Loeb and Waldrop 2008) forests, but not in northern red pine, Pinus resinosa, plantations (Tibbels and Kurta 2003) or northern coniferous forests (Patriquin and Barclay 2003). High values of insects and openness were associated with high levels of bat activity (Adams et al. 2009).
Multi-spatial Scale Forest Management
This will include the preservation of mature forest habitat at the landscape and stand scale in the form of large reserves, narrow and large strips, streamside reserves, aggregates and clumps (Gustafsson et al. 2012). A recent study on Tasmanian bats, using both radio-tracking and acoustic detectors, assessed the response of bats to multi-spatial scale forest management (Cawthen et al. 2013).
Summary and Future Possibilities
Other studies confirm that roost selection in both bark- and cavity-roosting and leaf-roosting bat species is strongly influenced by landscape-scale metrics in both eastern and western forests of North America (Limpert et al. Densities of hollow trees sufficient to support populations of bats support, is unknown and remains a major knowledge gap (Law 1996), but is likely to be species-dependent and based on roost-switching behavior and social dynamics within colonies (Johnson et al. 2013) and the density of other cavity-dependent fauna .
Glossary
Aihartza JR, Garin I, Goiti U et al (2003) Filannoo bakka jireenyaa birraa kan qamalee fardaa Meditiraaniyaanii (Rhinolophus euryale) Urdaibai Biosphere Reserve (Basque Country) keessatti. Brigham RMR, Vonhof MJ, Barclay RM et al (1997) Amala roosting fi filannoo iddoo bosona roost bats Kaalifoorniyaa (Myotis californicus).
Bats in the Anthropogenic Matrix
Challenges and Opportunities for the Conservation of Chiroptera
Introduction
The ubiquity of agriculture, however, means that agricultural land cannot be ignored in the context of landscape-level biodiversity conservation approaches (Vandermeer and Perfecto 2007; Loos et al. 2014). Short-term yield increases will come at the cost of reduced structural and taxonomic diversity within agricultural systems (Loos et al. 2014) and concomitant loss of key ecosystem services.
Methods
General bat assemblage↓ activity, species richness Fuentes-Montemayor et al. 2011) Temperate agricultural landscape Conventional farmland and agri-environment scheme farming lands. General bat composition≈ activity Russo et al. 2002) Mediterranean landscape Olive groves, traditional farmlands Rhinolophus euryale↑ home range composition, feeding time Stahlschmidt et al.
Effects of Agricultural Intensity on Bat Assemblage Structure, Behavior, and Ecology
Several investigations have confirmed such interactions between farm- and landscape-level intensification: Intensification in cocoa matrices in Brazil (Faria et al. Faria and Baumgarten 2007) and coffee matrices in Colombia (Numa et al. 2005) resulted in reductions in richness of species and abundance of bats in agroforests with different shades compared to forest fragments. Positive effect sizes indicate reductions in relative abundance and activity or species richness in response to habitat conversion and intensification.
Pesticide Impacts on Bat Populations
Even bats that forage outside agricultural areas can be exposed to pesticides through biomagnification as residues are incorporated into the tissues of organisms at higher trophic levels (Bayat et al. 2014). Despite the clear negative impacts of organochlorines on bats, the effects of agrochemical classes such as pyrethroids and neonicotinoids remain largely unknown (O'Shea and Johnston 2009; Quarles 2013; Bayat et al. 2014), though.
Ecosystem Services Provided by Bats in Agricultural Systems
- Insectivorous Bats and Pest Limitation
- Nectarivorous Bats and Pollination Services
Until recently, surprisingly little work had quantified the impact of bat predation on insect biomass (Maas et al. 2015). In Indonesian shade cacao, exclusive bats resulted in a 29% increase in arthropod abundance (Maas et al. 2013).
The Issue of Ecosystem Disservices of Bats to Agricultural Production
Discussion
- Sparing, Sharing, and the Devaluation of Manufactured Capital
Short-term adoption of such cultivars reduces the need to rely on bats and other predators for pest control (Lopez-Hoffman et al. 2014), resulting in a “devaluation” of the natural capital provided by bats and undermining the arguments for bat-based conservation. exclusively on the provision of ecosystem services. However, as in the case of pesticides, insects around the world are rapidly developing resistance to Bt crops, resulting in a rapid devaluation of the capital produced (Lopez-Hoffman et al. 2014).
Research Priorities
- Filling in Biogeographical Knowledge Gaps
- Linking Farm Management, Ecosystem Services, and Landscape-Level Processes
- Pest Suppression in the Face of Climate Change, Pesticides, and GM Crops
- Quantifying Impact and Value Across Crops and Biomes
- Changing Attitudes and Behaviors Toward Bats in the Developing World
Clare EL, Barber BR, Sweeney BW et al (2011) Comer localmente: influencias del hábitat en la dieta de los pequeños murciélagos marrones (Myotis lucifugus). Guillén A, Ibáñez C, Pérez JL et al (1994) Residuos de cloro orgánico en murciélagos pipistrelle españoles (Pipistrellus pipistrellus).
Dark Matters: The Effects of Artificial Lighting on Bats
Introduction
Light pollution affected almost a fifth of the world's land area in 2001 (Cinzano et al. 2001). However, the biological impacts of light pollution have only recently been recognized (Longcore and Rich 2004).
Types of Artificial Light
These are further classified as low pressure discharge and high intensity discharge (HID) lamps (Elvidge et al. 2010). The luminous efficiency (LE) (amount of light produced per watt of electricity) of gas discharge lamps is five times higher than that of incandescent lamps (Schubert and Kim 2005; Elvidge et al. 2010).
The Growth of Light Pollution
Projected Changes in Technology
The Biological Effects of Light Pollution
- Impacts of Light Pollution on Intra- and Inter-specific Competition
- Effects of Artificial Light on Physiological Homeostasis
- Interference of Light Pollution with Nocturnal Navigation
Light pollution may have even been a driver of the insect biodiversity crisis (Conrad et al. 2006). Warm white and cool white LED lights result in less flight-to-light behavior than HPS lights (Huemer et al. 2010;
Bat Vision
Asian lesser yellow bats Scotophilus kuhlii and Leschenault's rousette Rousettus leschenaultii showed behavioral (Xuan et al. 2012b) and immunohistochemical responses in the primary visual cortex (Xuan et al. Other bat species with intact Sws1 genes, can suggest that UV Sensitivity to UV, with maximum sensitivity near 360 nm (Zhao et al. 2009b).
Observational Studies on Bats at Street Lights
Short-wavelength opsin is sensitive to UV and may be useful for detecting UV-reflecting flowers (Winter et al. 2003; Müller et al. 2009). Bat activity and foraging efficiency at streetlights are largely determined by the number and size of available insect prey, both of which are strongly influenced by the spectral characteristics of the light (Blake et al. 1994).
Experimental Studies on Bats at Street Lights
Compensation of energy losses by increasing foraging time may not be possible if, for example, emergence and/or transport is delayed by light pollution (Stone et al. 2009). Such delays also increase the risk of bats missing the dark peak of insect abundance, reducing the quality of foraging time.
Winners and Losers: Light-Tolerant and Light-Averse Bats
Despite having street-lit areas in their habitat, they were never used by the greater horseshoe bats Rhinolophus ferrumequinum (Jones and Morton 1992; Jones et al. 1995). Extinction risk is greatest in bat species with low aspect ratios (Jones et al. 2003; Safi and Kerth 2004), the species that show an aversion to artificial light.
Effects of Light Pollution on Ecosystem Services Provided by Bats
Artificial light reduced the foraging activity of pond bats Myotis dasycneme above rivers in the Netherlands (Kuijper et al. 2008) and the locomotion activity of southern long-nosed bats R. Leptonycteris yerbabuenae, a species that feeds on nectar and fruit, used areas of relatively low light intensity when traveling (Lowery et al. 2009) and Oprea et al. 2009) rarely captured fruit bats along roads, although some were present in municipal parks.
Knowledge Gaps, Future Challenges and Mitigation Strategies
- Knowledge Gaps
- Mitigation Strategies
- Future Challenges
This has the greatest potential to reduce light pollution and minimize ecological impacts (Gaston et al. 2012). Kuijper DPJ, Schut J, van Dullemen D et al (2008) Experimental evidence of light disturbance along the commuting routes of pond bats (Myotis dasycneme).
