m D I E N D A N
Vu Quang Viet
LIS: Tac gia Vu Q u a n g Viet Id chuyen vien cao cap - Vy traong Vy Tdi khodn qudc gia (Chief of National Accounts Section) CycThdng ke Lien hgp quoc (United Nations Statistics Division). O n g c6 nhieu bdi viet ve gido dye dupe da lugn quan t a m . Bdi viet the hien quan diem rieng cua tde g i d . Khoa hoc & To qu6e edm on tde gid dd gai bdi vd trdn trong gioi thieu den bgn doc.
KH&TQ
"Mpi nguoi co quyen duac hirdng gido due. Gido due phdi mien phi, it nhdt Id a bac sayeu [hay tieu hpc] hoac ca bdn [Itay het trung hpc ca sd hoac trung hpc pho thong]. Gido due sayeu phdi cudng birc.
Gido due AT thuat vd chuyen nghiep phdi duac td chirc de mpi nguoi co the thu hudng vd gido due bgc cao [dai hpc, V.V.]phdi Idm sao de mpi nguoi co quyen binh ddng thu hudng dua tren thdnh tich ximg ddng."'
Giao due cudng biic mien phi da dugc Lien Hgp Qudc coi la quyen can ban eiia eon ngudi. Hien phap Viet Nam qua cac thdi ky deu cdng nhan quyen dd:
"Nen sa hpc cueing birc vd khong hoc phi. O cdc truong sa hpc dia phuemg, quoc ddn thieu so co quyen hpc bdng tieng ciia minh. Hpc trd ngheo dugc Chinh phu giiip. Trucmg tu dugc md tu do vd phdi day theo chuemg trinh Nhd nuac." -
"Hpc tap la quyen vd nghia vu ciia cdng ddn. Nhd nude thuc hien timg buac che dd gido due pho thong bdt bupc, thirc hien che dp hpc khongphdi trd tien vd chinh sdch cap hpc bong, tao dieu kien thuan lgi cho cdng ddn hpc tap."'
"Hpc tap Id quyen vd nghia vu ciia cdng ddn. Bgc tieu hpc la bdt bupc. khongphdi trd hoc phi" ' Van de khdng phai la ban xem giao due ca sd ed nen mien phi va cudng biie hay khdng ma la hieu the nao la quyen binh dang trong viec thu hudng giao due va the nao la mien phi. My la mdt trong hai nude dau tien tren the gidi thue hien chinh sach nay, cho nen viec tim hieu van de d day nhat la phong trao bao ve quyen lgi nay d nude tu ban nhu My cung la bai hge cho Viet Nam.
K h o a h o c & To q u o c thang 9 2008
TIEN TRlNH XAC LAP GIAO DUO MIEN PHI VA CLfCiJNG BL/C 6 N\J6C MY
d My cd hai he thdng Bd Giao due dde lap nhau, mgt ciia lien bang va mgt d mdi tieu bang, vi nude My la loai nude lien bang. Vai trd ciia Bd Giao due chinh quyen lien bang rat han che. Ngan sach ciia Bg giao due lien bang hang nam rat nhd so vdi tong chi phi cho nen giao due. Ngan sach lien bang vao nam 2007 chi cho giao due khoang dudi 54,4 ty, chi bang gan 5,4% td'ng chi phi cho giao due mgi cap la 1.000 ty USD. Trong chi phi nay chi cd 12% phai siidung theo luat dinh (mandatory), edn 88% duge sii dung tiiy theo quyet dinh ciia chinh phii (discretionary). Tiic la chi vi luat ddi hdi rat it, viee ehi cho giao due ciia chinh phii Lien bang lien quan ehii yeu den viec cho vay di hge, huan nghe sau trung hge, ehi lien quan den viec giao due nhiing ngudi khuyet tat, va chi cho binh sT giai ngu di hge dai hge, v.v.
Hien phap Lien bang My khdng cd dieu khoan
DIEN DAN I
nao bao dam quyen dugc giao due phd" thdng mien phi.
Chi phi cho giao due hoan toan tiiy quyet dinh ciia chinh quyen bang va dia phuang. Hien nay d My, 90%
hge sinh phd thdng hge d trudng edng mien phi.
Trong 10% edn lai thi 78% la hge d trudng tu thude Giao hdi Cdng giao. Ngay ea d cap dai hge, 77%
sinh vien theo hge tai cac dai hge cdng lap.^ Ndi tdm lai, trudng tu khdng phai la giai phap ma My chgn lua de giai quyet van de giao due. Chinh phii cCing khdng dugc phep trg cap eae trudng tu ciia cdng giao hoac ciia bat cii tdn giao nao vi lam the la vi pham Hien phap eiia mdt the che cdng hda, mgt the ehe hoan toan dan su khdng theo bat eii mdt tdn giao nao.*^ It nhat d My, hge sinh neu da chgn di hge trudng tdn giao se khdng dugc nha nude trg cap dudi bat cii hinh thiie nao vi nhu the la gian tiep co vu cho tdn giao dd. Nhung hien nay ciing cd vai dia phuong d My sau khi bd phieu trung cau dan y da cho phep chinh quyen tra tien cho hge sinh di hge trudng tu neu gia dinh hge sinh chgn lam the va tien chi tra dua vao ehi phi binh quan cho mdt hge sinh trudng cdng.
Cae bang d My trong khoang thdi gian keo dai 50 nam da theo nhau thdng qua luat cudng biic va mien phi giao due d cap phd thdng, theo guong Massachusetts. Bang Massachusetts nay ra luat cudng biie giao due vao nam 1852 (tiic la gan 10 nam trudc ndi chien va 76 nam sau ddc lap).' Den nam 1890, dai da sd cae bang cd luat cudng biic giao due. Bang cudi Cling la Alaska ra luat vao nam 1929." Cudng biic giao due thudng ap dung tii ldp mau giao cho den ldp 12, nhung cd nai chi den ldp 9. Tuy nhien toan bg giao due tii ldp 1 den ldp 12 mien phi, ke ca mien phi sach vd.
Cd nhieu ly do dua ra giai thich tai sao luat cudng biic giao due ra ddi d My nam 1852, chi sau su ra ddi lan dau tien tren the gidi d nude Phd (Prussia) dudi tu each giao due nha nude phi tdn giao nam 1763.
Trong nhirng ly do giai thieh rd rang cd ly do phat xuat tii quan diem chinh tri nham tao dung ra nhiing cdng dan kieu My va dap iing ddi hdi eiia nen kinh te trong thdi cdng nghiep hda. Nude Phd ed quan diem rat rd rang ve muc dich ciia giao due: dd la dao tao nhiing cdng dan cd trach nhiem vi lgi ich ciia nude Phd. Va ehinh Bang Massachusetts chii ddng hoc hdi dua he thdng giao due nude Phd vao My.
Sheldon Riehman theo trudng phai eua nha kinh
thang 9 2008 K h o a h p c & T 6 q u o c
I DIEN DAN
te Milton Friedman cho ring viec ep huge dan chiing vao mdt nen giao due cdng lap va cudng biic la dua tren tu tudng mudn xoa bd quyen lua chgn trudng (tuhay cdng) ciia dan chiing, vdi muc dich diie khudn tre em theo mau hinh ly tudng ma nha nude mudn, chii khdng phai vi muc dich nang trinh do giao due eiia nhan dan.
Nhdm nay eho rang liie thue hien cudng bach dbang Massachusetts nam 1852 thi 90% dan dia phuang da biet dgc biet viet, do dd dan chiing ed the tu lo, khdng can den giao due edng. Chiing ta eiing
ed the de dang giai thieh khae di la trinh do ehi biet dgc va biet viet, liic ma hon 70% dan My edn lam ndng nghiep, khdng the dap ung vdi ddi hdi eiia tien trinh cdng nghiep hda dang xay ra. Chinh ehinh sach cudng biic giao due pho thdng da giiip nude My tien nhanh. Thuc te, vao nam 1870, sd hge sinh trung hge d My chi bang 0,2% dan sd va chi bang 2% dan sd trong do tudi di hge trung hge; sd trudng hge cdng llie dd ehi la 500 vdi dan sd 38 trieu. Do vai trd eiia chinh quyen, sd trudng cdng nam 1910 len tren
10.000 dao tao 1,1 trieu hge sinh trung hge va 15%
dan sd trong do tudi di hge. Va mai den nam 1950 nude My mdi bude qua thdi ky ma viec di hge ciia dai da sd dan ehiing cham dut sau khi hoan thanh cap trung hge phd thdng."
Cdn ehii tnrong diing giao due nham giiip thanh thieu nien ed siic khoe, biet dgc biet viet, biet suy luan, cd nen tang dao due va trach nhiem xa hdi la mgt ddi hdi khaeh quan ddi vdi su tdn tai eiia bat eii xa hdi nao chia se eiing mdt nen van hda, va ed nhung muc dich ehung. Sukhac biet quan trgng khdng phai la nhiem vu giao due y thiie cdng dan ma la muc dich CO ban ciia nen giao due: hoac dao tao nhung eon ngudi may chi biet tuan thii quyen lue (dii the quyen hay than quyen) hoac thuc hien mgt nen giao due khai sang, phat trien tu do tu duy, phan tieh van de theo ehuan mue khoa hoc, phi than hge du mang tinh tdn giao hoac y thiie he. Phe Friedman da dat sai van de.
Chinh vi y thure ve vai trd eiia ehinh quyen, ngudi lanh dao va ngudi dan ma ehii truang giao due cudng
bach ra ddi d phuong Tay, bat ngudn vdi chii truang eiia triet gia Platon trong quyen Republic [Ludn ve Cpng hod], ra ddi khoang 400 nam trude cdng nguyen, nham dao tao nhung ngudi lanh dao - triet gia cd hieu biet, biet suy luan de tim ehan ly, khdng ed gia dinh va tai san rieng, chi biet phuc vu lgi ich cdng, va do dd ed toan quyen quyet dinh nhiing van de trong xa hdi. Tat nhien ngay d thdi dd, Aristotle da
Khoa hpc & Td quoc thang 9 2008
nghT khae ve giao due, cho r5ng Platon la ao tudng.
Aristotle chii truong giao due phai nham tao ra nhiing ngudi "dan chii" biet bao ve che do dan chii. Tu duy ddc lap, tu do ciia thdi Hy Lap hay triet gia ciing thdi d Trung Quoc da bi y thiic he tdn giao hoac quan than ciia Khdng Tii khi dem iing dung de bep cho den thdi phuc hung d phuang Tay va mai mdi day d Trung Qudc. Dii d dau, y thiic ve giao due vdi muc dich xa hdi ludn ludn tdn tai. Phong trao cai each cdng giao ciia Martin Luther nam 1524 ciing chii truong cudng biic giao due, nham giiip ngudi theo dao biet sdng dao diic, de xay dung xa hdi tdt dep hon, chang khae gi chii truong bat di linh de bao ve dat nude.'"
O My, chii truong giao due cudng biic va mien phi cdn nay sinh tir tu tudng ve the che cdng hda, ve binh dang, nham xay dung mdt xa hdi dan su, dan ehii, de khdng bi vua ehiia hoac mdt nen than hge tdn giao nao che ngu. Nhdm Milton Friedman rat dan gian khi phe phan nen giao due cudng biic va mien phi d My, cho rang nd da tudc quyen tu do chgn lua giao due tu va rang giao due edng chi nham tao ra khudn mau. Day la tranh luan hoan toan mang tinh y thiic he chong mgi su can thiep ciia nha nude.
DIEN D A N Thuc te d Massachusetts nai dau tien cudng biic giao due d My ciing cho thay ngudi phat ddng chinh sach nay Horace Mann, Bd trudng giao due bang, chii truong chdng dem tdn giao vao nha trudng, tiie la tao cho hge sinh tu duy dde lap, khoa hge. Horace Mann Cling chu truang xay dimg mdt he thdng giao due ddng nhat eho ca bang, thay vi timg khu vuc giao due dia phuong khae nhau, hge sinh d trinh do khae nhau hge, va khdng khuyen khich ldi hge tir chuong hoac dung roi vgt. Ong ta ciing chii truang nien hge dai hon, thdi gian hge keo dai den 16 tudi, vdi nhieu mdn va sii dung cac trang thiet bi de day hge."
Tu tudng binh dang cho mgi cdng dan, va nha nude phai do dan va vi dan, la y tudng ciia nhiing ngudi lap qudc My, cd le ciing phan anh nhu cau tinh than eiia nhieu ngudi bd chau Au di tim viing dat mdi.
Tuyen ngdn Dde Lap ciia My 1776 viet:
Chiing toi cho rdng ddy Id sir that hien nhien, rdng mpi nguai sinh ra binh ddng, rdng hp dugc tgo hoa ban cho nhiing quyen bdt khd xdm pham, trong do quyen song, tu do vd mini cdu hgnh phuc - vd de dat duac nhiing quyen ndy, con nguai lap ra chinh quyen vd chinh quyen co quyen chi vi sudongy trao quyin cua nhiing nguoi bi cai qudn - vd khi ndo bdt cir hinh thirc chinh quyin ndo trd nen nguy hgi tdi nhitng muc dich tren, thi do la quyin cua nhdn ddn thay doi hoac xoa bo no, vd lap ra chinh quyen mdi, ddt nen mong tren nhirng nguyin ly trin vd to chirc quyin lire vai hinh thuc thi ndo de cd the bdo ddm dugc an ninh vd hgnh phiic ciia hp.
Dil binh dang la nguyen tac ca ban hinh thanh nude My nhung dd chi la nguyen tae. Nguyen t5c nay da dugc Hd Chi Minh viet trong Tuyen ngdn dde lap ciia Viet Nam, nhung dd cung chi la nguyen t i e . Ngay chu "ngudi" da dugc hieu khae nhau:
chang ban nhu d Hy Lap, "ngudi" da duge hieu la
"ngudi cdng dan" do dd nd le chi cd quyen lam "ngudi"
neu cd dii tien mua lai quyen tu do, va quyen edng dan ciia minh; edn d My thdi trudc khi giai phdng nd le thi nd le gan lien vdi da mau nen dii cd tien eiing khdng the mua lai quyen lam "ngudi" ciia minh dugc. Ngay ca d nude ta hien nay va dae biet la trudc day, rd rang, chi cd the la "ngudi cdng dan" vdi mdt sd quyen nhat dinh (chu khdng phai tat ca, thi du nhu quyen bau cir ehii khdng phai quyen irng cir) ghi trong hien phap.
Viec bien nguyen tjc "mgi ngudi sinh ra binh
• I
thang 9 2008 Khoa hpc & To quoc
1 ^ DIEN D A N
dang" thanh hien thuc la ca mdt qua trinh dau tranh cam go ciia dan chiing. Binh dang d bat cii che do nao khdng bao gid la mdn qua ngudi nam quyen, va thanh phan uu dai an theo trong xa hdi tang khdng cho nhan dan.
O My, chinh cuoc ndi ehien keo dai 5 nam 1861 den 1865 mdi dua den giai phdng nd le, nhung du nd le duge giai phdng tren giay td, chuyen tu do thuc su va binh dang trong xa hdi va trudc phap luat van cdn xa vdi. Ngudi da den sau ngi chien da phai tranh dau them sudt 100 nam de dat dugc quyen binh dang trudc phap luat. Dao luat ve Quyen Cdng dan (Civil Rights Act) nam 1964 va tu chinh nam 1972 va 1973 xda bd mgi hanh vi phan biet ddi xii ve chung tgc, sac gidi, tdn giao, ngudn gdc dan tgc va khuyet tat trong mgi boat dgng d nai edng cdng, trong tat ca eac chuong trinh ed tai trg eiia ehinh phii, trong viec tuyen dung va thai hdi, huan luyen, tang luong, tang ehiie eho lao ddng d bat eii dau. Nd ciing tao dieu kien de ca nhan nham bao ve quyen lgi ciia hg kien nha nude va cae to chiic kinh doanh, xa hdi. Dao luat tren eiing lap ra cac iiy ban dae biet cd nhiem vu theo ddi, dieu tra, xem xet bao ve quyen edng dan nhutJy ban giao due (Corrmiission of Education), Uy ban Quyen Cdng dan (Commission of Civil Rights), LJy ban Binh dang Co hdi trong Viec lam (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission).
Ngoai ra dao luat ciing xda bd mgi thii thuat tudc quyen bd phieu true tiep ciia ngudi dan nhu dat ra dieu kien de dugc bd phieu la phai chiing td biet dgc, biet viet va phai ddng thue, hay le phi, bd phieu (poll tax) mdi cd quyen bd phieu. Dao luat ve Quyen Cdng dan cung ehi la co sd de nhan dan My sii dung ddi hdi va bao ve quyen lgi minh bdi vi d dau ciing vay khdng mdt quyen luc nao lai khdng tim each lam dung quyen luc.
BINH D A N G LA GJ VA NGUYEN LY KIEN TAO BINH DANG
Vay thi binh dang la gi? Dae biet la binh dang trong mdt che do cdng hoa dua tren kinh te thi trudng tu do, lay nhiem vu bao ve quyen tu huu la nguyen tac ca ban. '-Xem xet ra thi thay rat khd dinh nghia binh dang. Binh dang thudng dugc hieu dudi hai nghia:
binh dang trudc phap luat va binh dang ve ca hdi.
Binh dang trirdc phap luat: De hieu nhat va gan nhu khdng tao ra mau thuan vdi cac nguyen tac khae la nguyen tae "mgi ngudi binh dang trudc phap luat".
theo nghia mgi ngudi dugc phap luat bao ve gidng nhau, ciing nhu chiu xii ly bing cung mgt thii luat, theo Cling mdt each thiic gidng nhau, bat chap mau da, gidi tinh, dia vi kinh te va quyen luc chinh tri ma xa hdi giao cho.
Binh dang vl ca hoi: Van de thii hai, "binh ding ve ea hdi" phiic tap hon vi nd cd the mau thuan vdi nhung nguyen tae khae, do dd khdng the dua vao thuc te cu the neu khdng cd su ddng thuan xa hgi ve nhung nguyen tic cu the nham xae lap su binh ding tdi thieu nao dd. Mdt thi du cu the la he thdng tuyen chgn dua vao viec thi tuyen kha nang tudng la binh ding nhung thue te cd the la khdng, vi du mgi ngudi dSu cd quyen (tiic la cd "ca hdi") du thi, nhiing dua tre sinh ra d trong gia dinh giau ed cd lgi the ve ca hdi han nhu duge hge them, dugc nhieu ca hdi hoc hdi kinh qua kinh nghiem (nhu du lich, v.v.) ma nhiing diia tre nha ngheo khdng the cd dugc. Quyen tham gia chua phai la binh ding ve ca hdi vi nd da ngam gia dinh mdt dieu phi thuc te la mgi diia tre deu thdng minh nhu nhau va ve the xae khde manh nhu nhau, va gia dinh cd tai san tuang duong. Ddi vdi mdt ngudi ngheo ddi, mdt diia tre ngheo ddi thieu ddi thi quyen binh ding ve tu do trong iing cii, bau cii, phat bieu, nop don thi tuyen ching cd nghia ly gi. Mudn hoan toan binh dang ve ea hdi, diem lihoi dau ve tai san cho tung con nguoi sinh ra tren the gian phai bang nhau hay noi mot each Idiac, phai binh dang. Tai san nay cd the la tu nhien ban cho hay gay ra, hoac cha me de lai. Chi khi nhung tai san ban dau gidng nhau thi ea hdi mdi gidng nhau, neu nhu xa hdi khdng tao them nhiing rao can phan biet ddi xii khae. Mgi ngudi nhu the se ed cung ca hdi, va su thanh cdng hay that bai se ehi tuy thude vao su cd gIng ban than (va tat nhien khdng the loai trir may man).
Nhiing cuge tranh luan ldn eho den tan ngay nay lien quan den su binh ding ve ea hdi. Hay ndi rd hon, lien quan den nguyen tic va bien phap de tao ra subinh dang ve ca hdi d nhung pham vi cd the thuc hien duge va lam giam nhiing bat binh ding ve ca hdi.
Va nai cd nhiem vu thuc hien nd chinh la ehinh quyen.
Con ngudi bd su tu chii ciia minh, va chap nhan sdng dudi mdt the che chinh quyen, theo Thomas Hobbes (1651), la de ed dugc an ninh va subao ve ciia luat phap. Cdn John Locke (1689) thi cho ring
K h o a h o c & To q u d c thang 9 2008
nhiem vu ciia ehinh quyen, ngoai nhung nhiem vu bao ve an ninh, khdng de ngudi nay giet ngudi kia hay trdm d p lan nhau, la nhim bao ve tu san, n6n tang ciia mdt nen kinh te thi trudng, ma Locke eho ring la tir lao ddng ehan ehinh ma ra. Hobbes di xa hon trong Leviathan (1651), tac pham dat nen mdng cho triet ly chinh tri d phuong tay, cho ring chinh an ninh va trat tu xa hdi se dao ldn neu nhu xa hdi qua mat binh ding, y thiic ve mdt xa hdi hda hgp se khdng cdn, su tiic gian se day ngudi ngheo noi gian, lam loan, truat hiiu ngudi giau."
Chinh vi de tranh tai hai ciia su mat binh ding qua dang trong xa hdi ma chii nghia vi lgi (utilitarian- ism) ciia John Stuart Mills (1861), tiep ndi quan diem ciia Hobbes, cho rang viec phan bd lai lgi tiic xa hdi la can thiet; nd se lam tong lgi ich (utility) eiia ca xa hoi tang len vi rang lay di mdt ddng eiia ngudi giau se lam giam lgi ich it han la lgi ich tang len khi dua ddng dd cho ngudi ngheo. Nhung chii truang tren cho ta thay kha rd la cac giai phap dugc ban den da cd su mau thuan giira nguyen ly binh dang va nguyen ly tdn trgng va bao ve tu san. Chap nhan hay khdng chap nhan quan diem eiia Hobbes va Mills trong mdt xa hdi nao dd ddi hdi su ddng thuan ciia chinh xa hdi dd. Nhirng ngudi chii truang phan chia lai lgi trie thudng duge coi la cd khuynh hudng xa hdi va thudng bi phe ehii truang thi trudng tu do toan triet chdng lai.
Tat nhien ehi cd the hda giai mau thuan giiia hai nguyen ly bao dam tu san va giam tinh trang mat binh ding ndi den d tren neu ta chap nhan nguyen tie tdi uu ma nha kinh te Vilfredo Pareto (1848-
1923) dua ra. Nguyen tac tdi uu Pareto la khdng the tang lgi ich ciia mdt thanh vien nao trong xa hgi ma khdng giam lgi ich ciia ngudi khae. Nhuvay viec phan phoi lai chi ed the bao dam tinh tdi uu neu lgi ich ciia it nhat mdt thanh vien trong xa hdi tang len ma khdng lam giam lgi ich ciia bat cii ai khae trong xa hdi. Vi vay, neu theo nguyen tic Pareto thi nhiing ngudi bi mat mat trong viee phan phdi lai phai duge den bii. Nguyen tic tdi uu trong phan phdi lai eiia Pareto ap dung trong mdt the gidi tinh, ndi ve phan chia mgt cai banh cd san, ciing llm chi la nguyen tie dung trong phan tieh kinh te nhung thue te khd Idng dem ling dung vao trong viee phan phdi lai. Tuy nhien, nguyen tae tdi uu Pareto hoan toan hien thuc neu ap dung vao the gidi ddng, vdi muc dich phat
DIEN D A N I trien la lam cho chiec banh ldn len, tiic la ap dung vao cac chuong trinh phat trien kinh te, tren ea sd ehinh sach ciia nha nude tap trung uu tien phat trien phuc vu dan ngheo hoac cae viing ngheo trong mdt nude.
Tap trung uu tien phat trien thanh phd Ha Ndi hay thanh pho Ho Chi Minh la hai tinh giau nhat nude la mdt hanh ddng cd the ndi la ehinh sach vi lgi ich ciia ngudi giau chii khdng vi tang cudng binh dang xa hdi. John Rawls ehinh la ngudi da phat huy eac nguyen tic ve cdng ly, binh ding trong mdt the gidi phiic tap va song ddng hon. Chi binh ding ve ca hdi tu do khdng dii, Rawls dua den nguyen tie thii hai ddi hdi binh ding ve ca hdi di lien vdi nguyen tic khae biet (difference principle), bao dam ring nhiing ngudi cd nhiing lgi the tuang duong phai ddi mat vdi nhiing co hdi tuong duong trong ddi sdng, va do dd "bat binh ding" neu hien dien la nhim muc dich dem lai lgi ich ldn nhat eho nhirng ngudi thiet thdi nhat.'"
Cho tdi nay, quan diem ciia Hobbes da ed anh hudng sau rdng den su van hanh eiia hau het chinh quyen eac nude phuong tay, qua viec ap dung nhieu bien phap nhim xae lap lai su quan binh ve tai san va ca hdi trong xa hdi. Nhieu thi du cd the ke ra nhu thue luy tien (ngudi cd thu nhap cao ddng thue theo ty le phan tram cao hon ngudi cd thu nhap thap), thue thiia ke tai san (tiic la thu nhap hi danh thue hai lan, llie thu nhap xay ra va liic tai san ehuyen giao cho ngudi thira ke), chinh sach trg cap xa hdi eho ngudi ngheo, trg cap that nghiep cho ngudi mat viec, trg cap eho tre em neu nhu eha me khdng dii thu nhap, dae biet la ddi vdi gia dinh mdt me mdt eon (trg cap du de ngudi me d nha nudi con), hoac dii de ngudi me giii con de ed the di lam. Cdn Marx thi theo mdt con dudng khae, tien doan su tat yeu ciia mdt xa hdi khdng giai cap, va cung ehii truong day manh tien trinh tat yeu dd bing mdt cuge each mang nham xda bd giai cap tu san, ca sd eiia su bat binh ding trong xa hdi. Tuy nhien, trong cac nude xa hdi ehii nghia hien thue, thi that su ehi cd su bat binh ding kieu nay dugc thay the bing su bat binh ding kieu khae. Dd la chua ke den nhung tieu cue khae ma nd gay ra.'-
TRIEN KHAI N H Q N G GIAI PHAP L A M GIAM s a BAT BINH D A N G
Nhieu giai phap da dugc ap dung nhu da ndi d tren trong nhieu xa hdi tu san nham giam su mat binh dang trong xa hdi. O dudi day ehi phat trien nhung
thang 9 2008 Khoa hoc & To quoc
m DIEN DAN
van de lien quan den viee nang eao binh dang xa hdi thdng qua giao due. Va day la dieu quan trgng nhit trong xa hdi, bdi vi tri thiie chinh la vdn con ngudi (human capital) quan trgng nhat va vdn eon ngudi nay dugc bdi dap hiiu hieu nhat thdng qua dau tu eiia ea nhan va dae biet eda xa hdi vao giao due.
Chinh sdch nhd nu&c cirong birc gido due pho thong vd chi trd cho nen gido due cirong buc ndy chinh Id nhdm bdo ddm cho mpi tre em trong xd hpi CO diem xudt phdt ban ddu tirong doi giong nhau, gidm thieu sir bdt binh ddng md tre em phdi hiing chiu neu sinh trong mot gia dinh ngheo hay mot gia dinh md cha me vo trach nhiem. Vd chd truong
ndy chinh Id vi loi ich chung cua xa hpi, bao gom cd muc dich xdy dung nhiing cdng ddn theo mdu hinh md nhd nu&c muon.
Chii truong nha nude lanh trach nhiem ehi tra eho giao due phd thdng khdng cdn la van de thao luan,
ed chang la su khae biet ve each xae dinh miie do phd° thdng (bao gdm ca trung hge hay chi tieu hge la tuy thude vao kha nang kinh te eua timg qudc gia) va quyen cung cap dich vu giao due phd' thdng (do trudng cdng nha nude td' chiic hay do eae trudng tu nhan vi lgi nhu dang dugc thi nghiem d My va Thuy Dien).
Cung chinh vi lgi ich eiia giao due ddi vdi su on dinh va phat trien eiia xa hdi ma ngay ca d cap eao dang hay dai hge, hau nhu mgi ehinh phii deu cd to'
ehiie dai hge mien phi, hay lay hge phi thap hon chi phi, ke ca trg cap cho dai hge tu, dae biet la J / ^ ^ ^ l ^ ^ m phat trien eae dai hge tu khdng f^. ^ ^ ^ ^ H vu lgi. Chinh sach nay bat ngudn tir nhan dinh la lgi ich ciia giao due d bat cir cap nao eiing ed tac dung ngoai vi thuan ddi vdi toan xa hdi. Ta cd the thay nhting ddng gdp ly thuyet ciia Einstein cd anh hudng rat ldn lao den vdi su phat trien ciia xa hdi, nhung theo nguyen tac luat qudc te ve bang sang che khdng the lay bing sang che. Ngay sy phat minh internet bit ngudn tir ARPANET ciia ba nha khoa hge, Lawrence Roberts va Paul Baran da tao ra suphat trien ve cdng nghe thdng tin than ky, cung la "eiia chua" ma mgi ngudi cd the sii dung vi nd la phat minh d dai hge vdi su tai trg eiia nha nude My. Bao ve sd hiiu tri tue la nham giup bao dam trong mgt
1 0 Khoa hpc & Td quoc t h a n g 9 2008
thdi gian nhat dinh thu nhap tii sang kien de cac tae gia cdng trinh cd ddng luc tiep tue phat minh hiiu dung.
Nhung rd rang neu mgi tri thirc chi vi lgi nhuan va dugc bao ve tdi tan ciing thi sy phat trien coi nhu cham dut. Nhiem vu ciia nha nude la tao ca hdi phd°
bien tri thiie den tung ngudi dan, chii khdng phai chi tao mgi ca hdi eho viec lam ra lgi nhuan. Neu chi vi lgi nhuan, ta da khdng cd tri thiic xuat phat tir dai hge. Dieu nay cd the de nhan thay la cho den nay, ta chua thay cd mdt dai hge vi lgi nhuan nao tao dugc uy tin ve giao due tren the gidi, du ring mgi ngudi deu cd the de dang ddng y vdi nhau ring quyen xay dung mdt dai hge vi lgi nhuan d mdt nen kinh te thi trudng la dieu duong nhien. Ngudi ta thSy that la la lung khi Viet Nam lai chu truong I3y thu bu chi trong giao due. Va giao due dai hge mien phi hoac duge nha nude tai trg mdt phan ciing la bien phap tao ca hdi eho nhting gia dinh ngheo
DIEN DAN I cd the cho con di hge, tiic la giam thieu tinh trang mit binh ding trong xa hdi.
Chinh vi su binh ding trong xa hdi ma hien nay ta thay nhieu van de duge dat ra dudng nhu vd ly neu chi xet tren khia canh kinh te cue bd. Thi du d cac nude cd kha nang, luat phap ddi hdi viec thiet ke xe buyt, xay dung cau thang may de ngudi khuyet tat ciing cd ea hdi binh dang dung xe nhu ngudi khdng khuyet tat. Chi phi rat ldn, nhung ehi de vai ngudi diing.
Dd la vi su binh dang.
Ve mat giao due, de bao dam tre em khdng cd bd me hoac chi cd me, khdng the di lam kiem thu nhap vi phai coi con, cd co hdi binh ding vdi tre em khae, nhieu nha nude da trg cap nudi dudng tre em, ke ca ngudi me de hoac d nha, hoac dii tien giii con di lam.
Ciing chinh vi su binh ding ma luat phap cae bang d My ddi hdi ehinh quyen bang trg cap them tien eho eac trudng d nhung khu ngheo dat miie chi phi toi thieu binh quan mgt hge sinh, khi ma ehinh quyen khu vuc khdng thu dd thue eho giao due.
Nguyen tae bao ve quyen binh dang duge the hien ca d nhiing chi tiet ma ta tudng nhu vd ly. Thi du d thanh pho New York, cd mdt sd trudng trung bgc phd thdng (cap II) tuyen chgn danh cho hge sinh gidi ma mgi hge sinh ed quyen duge du thi (neu dat duge miie do tdi thieu d trudng cap dudi). O nhiing trudng nay, chi phi binh quan mdt hge sinh trudng nhan duge tii nha nude ciing khdng the hon cae trudng khae vi hanh ddng eiia nha nude phai ap dung binh dang vdi mgi cdng dan. Hdi phu huynh ed the tunguyen ddng gdp them chi phi cho cae boat ddng ngoai khda, nhung khdng the dung tien dd tang luong giao vien.
Khi phan tich nhung gi dang dugc thyc hien hoac dy kien se md rdng viec thuc hien d Viet Nam ta mdi thay binh ding da khdng phai nguyen tie dugc sii dyng de hinh thanh ehinh sach. Ching han md hinh trudng "chat lugng eao" hay trudng "edng lap tu chii tai chinh" dang duge thii nghiem vai nam gan day. Md hinh nay eho phep dia phuang lap ra cae trudng cdng thu hge phi dae biet cao de trudng ed the tra luong eao nhim thu hiit thay gidi va de hge sinh ed nhieu phuang tien hge tap, rd rang vi pham trach nhiem ciia nha nude trong viec ddi xiibinh dang vdi mgi cdng dan, vi vdi hanh ddng tren, nha nude da bii Id eho nhiing hoat ddng that sy la tu nhan hay ndi khae di nha nude lay edng quy xay dung tnrdng chi nham phuc
thang 9 2008 K h o a h p c & T d q u o c 11
I DIEN DAN
vu nha giau, nhiing ngudi ed tien eho eon di hge nhung trudng dae biet nhu vay. Cae loai trudng
"cdng lap ty ehii tai chinh" rd rang la cac trudng cdng danh cho eon nha giau ma eon cai nha ngheo khdng cd hy vgng ben mang tdi vi khdng dii tien tra."' Viee thu hge phi cac viing khae nhau chi cd the coi la binh dang neu phi thu tuong ddng ve siic mua eiia timg viing, hay tinh diing theo mire eao thap eua thu nhap thyc te eua timg ngudi dan (nhu viec ddng thue Itiy tien), nhung dieu nay lai khdng the de dang thyc hien. Bien phdp thu dgi trd & mot dia phuemg trung binh gidu nhieu
hon mot dia phuemg trung binh ngheo ro rdng Id viphgm nguyen tac binh ddng vi mot ngudi ngheo akhu vuc gidu co the con ngheo hem mot ngudi ngheo
& lihu vuc ngheo, nhung hp phdi dong gop nhieu hem. Vi nguyen tac binh ddng khong dugc xem xet, ta moi thay trudng tre Id & vdng ngheo vd khong thay trudng tre Id & Thdnh pho Hd Chi Minh hay Hd Noi. cang vi thieu binh ddng md tre em nhiing vdng ngheo, khong cd trudng gdn, phdi hpc noi tru, gia dinh phdi tu trang trdi md khong dugc su giiip dando tirphia chinh quyen. Trong nhiing truvng hop ndy, cha me qud ngheo se khong co ly do cho con di hpc.
Dieu tra ciia Tran Huu Quang eho thay mdt hge sinh phd thdng thude nhdm dan cu cd thu nhap ngheo nhat dugc gia dinh chi phi cho giao due trong mgt nam la 380 ngan ddng, cdn nai nhdm dan cu cd thu nhap eao thi dugc ehi tdi 2,45 trieu dong, gap ban 6 lan nhdm ngheo." Chinh sach tra luong giao suhien nay ciing thieu binh ding, vi ngoai luong chinh thiic do ngan sach cap, lai edn cd luong dya vao phu thu, cung do nha nude cho phep, nhung miic do phu thu (cd nai gap hai lan hge phi nhudTra Vinh) lai tiiy thude trudng khu nha ngheo hay trudng khu nha giau, chii khdng lien quan den siic lao ddng hoac kha nang chuyen mdn ciia giao chiic."
Luat phap cac bang d My ching ban ngoai viec mien hge phi, cdn mien chi phi cho sach vd va phuang tien tdi trudng; edn ddi vdi tre em nha ngheo, luat phap ciing bao dam trg cap de cha me hay ngudi bao dudng hoc sinh cd dii tien chi phi cho nha d, an uong, quan
1 2 Khoa hpc & To qudc t h a n g 9 2008
ao, v.v. neu khdng thi tinh cudng biic bi mat tac dung.
Noi the, khong co nghia la bao gio cung can phai ton trong nguyen tac binh ding; thuc te cac bien phap bat binh ding da duoc thuc hien, mot each CO y thuc, nhim sira sai lai nhimg bat binh dang da xay ra trong qua khu.
Luat GI bill 1944 d My ap dung tir The chien thii hai, ddi xii dae biet vdi quan nhan giai ngii; hg dugc cap hge bdng cho hge dai hge. Luat nay da cho phep 8 trieu ngudi hge xong dai hoc sau The chien thii hai. O Viet Nam, quan nhan giai ngii ciing dugc uu tien trong giao due.
Quan trgng hon la viec ap dung Hdnh dpng khang dinh (affirmative action), mdt chinh sach d My nhim tang cudng binh ding gidi tinh va mau da trong giao due va thi trudng lao ddng. Thi du ca tnrdng dai hge cdng va tu d My deu uu tien nhan hge sinh thieu sd (ehii yeu la da den va ngudi da dd My da va da tung bi dan ap va phan biet doi xii) ke ca viec dat ra chi tieu (quota) de thuc hien. Viec tuyen lao ddng cho ca quan cdng quyen ciing dya vao chinh sach uu tien cho ngudi thieu sd va phu nir, ke ca d vai trd lanh dao. Chinh sach tuong ty uu tien ngudi thieu sd cung dugc ap dung d Viet Nam. O Malaisia ngudi da so goc Ma Lai dugc bao ve vi tri qua hinh thiic chi tieu vi vi tri kinh te thua thiet so vdi ngudi gdc Hoa. Tat nhien, nhiing ehinh sach nhu vay lai phan biet ddi xii vdi nhung ngudi khdng dugc dua vao dien uu tien va do dd thdi hieu ciia Hdnh dpng khdng dinh khdng the keo dai mai mai. Nghi quyet 209 da dugc dan California thdng qua trong cuge trung cau dan y d bang nam 1998, xda bd chinh sach uu tien nhan hge sinh thieu sd vao Dai hge California.
Dong thoi rdt cdn viec trd luemg cao hon hdn cho gido vien a nhiing vung kho khan nhdm muc dich khuyen khich gido vien gidi di dgy nhirng vung xa.
Da den liic binh ding khdng chi la khau hieu ma phai la thyc chat ciia mdt che do mang ten xa hdi chii nghia. "Xa hdi hda" dang la khau hieu de bat mgi ngudi ddng tien cho mgi dich vu cdng vdi nguyen tic "lay thu bii ehi", ma khdng phan tich trach nhiem cung irng dich vu cdng dd cd phai la trach nhiem ciia nha nude khdng va tai sao lai la trach nhiem ciia nha nude. Nd lam tang them sy mat binh ding trong xa hdi. Nd dang bien thanh khau hieu cho tu nhan hda;
ma cdn te hon the, nd lay ciia cdng phuc vu lgi ich
DIEN DAN I
ciia thieu sd ngudi giau, ngudi ed quyen the nhu trong giao dye hien nay. Va khdng phai chi vdi van de giao dye, nhieu khia canh khae trong xa hdi Viet Nam hien nay eiing can nghiem chinh xet lai vi luat phap hien nay phan biet ddi xii ddi vdi nhiing ngudi khdng thude thanh phan dugc uu dai. Qua trinh xet lai se gdp phan phat trien xa hdi trong on dinh neu dugc giai quyet thdng qua viec xem xet lai luat phap va chinh sach nha nude tren co sd eiia Hien phap.
Va viec xem xet chi hiru hieu neu nd dat ca sd tren quyen ciia ngudi dan dugc mang ra kien chinh phii, qudc hgi, nai ban hanh nhirng luat le, chinh sach hoac thyc hien cac hanh ddng cu the dua den bat dinh ding trong xa hdi. Vi vay xa hdi nao ciing can mdt tda an Hien phap ddc lap.B
/. Ban Tuyen bo Chung ve Quyen Con Nguai nam 1948 cua Lien Hap Quoc a dieu 26.
2. Hien Phdp Viet Nam Ddn chu Cgng hda 1946, Dieu 15.
3. Hien phdp Nuac Cpng hoa Xd hgi Chii nghia Viet Nam 1980, Dieu 60.
4. Hien phdp Nuac Cgng hoa Xd hgi Chii nghia Viet Nam 1992, Dieu 59.
5. Xem: Vii Quang Viet, Gido due tuhay cdng nhin tu goc do ly thuyet kinh te. Thai Dai Mai, thdng 3 ndm 2008. http://www.tap- chithoidai.org/ThoiDail3/200813_VuQuangVie1_4.htm
6. Dii nhd nuac dgc lap vai ton gido, a mgt so nuac chdu Au nhuThuy Dien, Hd Lan, Dire, Dan Mach, Ao, Thuy Si, v.v. chinh phd thu dum "thue ton gido " (church taxes) cho cdc ton gido thuang Id 1-2% thu nhap cd nhdn vd huang le phi thu neu nhu cgng dong bo phieu dng hg viec lam ndy. Ngudn ddn cd the tu chdi ddng thue tdn gido. ddc biet Id nhitng nguai khdng thuoc tdn gido ndo. Xem: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_tax.
7. Luat Bang Massachusetts ddi hdi mdi thixd cd mdt trucmg trung hoc (grammar school). Cha me phdi nop phat neu khdng gii-i con tai truomg vd chinh quyen dugc quyen tudc quyen cha me, dua cho nguai khde nudi neu thdy cha me khdng du tu cdch nudi dgy dugc con edi. Xem:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_education
8. Xem Carl F Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic: Common Schools and A merican Society 1780-1960.1983. New York: Hill and Wang Ciing nen xem: http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0112617.html 9. Martin Trow, The second transformation ofAmerican Secondary Education, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, na 2, 1961.
10. Sheldon Riehman, Separating School & State: How To Liberate American Families, chapter 3.
11. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Horace_Mann
12. Thi du xu ly trdm cudp, cdm qudc hint hda neu khdng duac bdi thudng theo gid thi trudng vd khdng cd ly do chinh ddng.
13. Thomas Hobbes (1651), Leviathan, chapter 30, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
14. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, Harvard University Press, revised edition. 1999, ChuangU.
15. Xem: Vii Quang Viet, , Thai Dgi Mai. so 7, 2006.
16. Trdn Hihi Quang, Tir gia dinh den nhd gido: Nhung vdn de kinh te-xd hdi trong nen gido due pho thdng, trang 112-113.
17. Trdn Him Quang, nt. trang 109.
18. Xem: Trdn Hifu Quang, nt. trang 99.
thang 9 2008 K h o a h p c & To q u 6 c 1 3