This will allow for an exploration of the relevance and appropriateness of attachment interventions in the South African context. According to Moskowitz (2001, p. 1), the West lives “in an age consumed by the worship of the psyche”.
Critique of the cross-cultural applicability of psychological theory
Cross-cultural parenting models
The second element of the niche includes customary practices in child care and child rearing. Super and Harkness described these three components as three integrated subsystems of the cultural niche.
The applicability of attachment theory cross-culturally
Therefore, these authors draw attention to the development of the individual within larger cultural factors. There also appear to be cultural differences regarding specific parenting practices that are considered part of the responsive parenting repertoire.
Parenting in the African context
Critique of attachment theory in the African context
Currently, attachment theory has been largely accepted in academic circles in the South African context. Furthermore, parenting programs aimed at facilitating attachment relationships have been widely implemented in the South African context.
The other side of the debate .1 Parenting is universal
Universality of attachment theory
There appear to be large differences in parenting styles and practices based on specific living conditions in certain cultural contexts, and it may therefore be inappropriate to apply attachment results at a national or cultural level. SES has a macro-level impact on child development, as infants living in poverty are less likely to have secure attachments to their parents compared to infants from high socioeconomic categories.
Rationale for the study
Some research has even suggested that intracultural differences in attachment are greater than intercultural differences (Van IJzendoorn, 1990). For example, a father who works independently in a professional job is more likely to promote autonomous and self-directed behavior in his children than a working parent.
Aims of the study
One particularly important intracultural variable in determining attachment behavior appears to be socioeconomic status (SES) (Okagaki & Divecha, 1993). Therefore, it may be that the effects of culture on variation in attachment are confounded with the effects of SES.
Conclusion
One parenting theory that has been accepted to be universally applicable is John Bowlby's (1969) attachment theory. However, the universality of attachment theory has been questioned, and it has been suggested that this theory is based on certain assumptions from the Western worldview.
Research design
Participants
The participants formed a group of volunteers in the NGO's play facilitation program: these women travel between homes in the community, take toys and facilitate play and learning with young children, especially in families that lack involved parents. All the participants were selected to work as volunteers in the NGO by the local traditional community leadership in collaboration with the local community members.
Data collection
These women were part of a group of volunteers who are involved in the community in Pietermaritzburg in a variety of ways, including teaching life orientation, HIV/AIDS testing and counseling and distributing food parcels to poor households. The NGO recruited caregivers from local church communities, where they participated in apprenticeship training at the NGO.
Ethical considerations
Finally, focus groups provide participants with the opportunity to respond and comment on each other's contributions, giving the researcher access to data that would not be available in an individual interview (Willig, 2001). Therefore, focus groups were used to obtain more naturalistic, nuanced, and richer data that emerged from caregivers' shared understandings of reality.
Procedure
Next, participants were asked to watch a series of short videos that presented attachment-related behaviors. In relation to the focus groups at the first location, the researcher translated and transcribed the isiZulu audio recording into English.
Data analysis
Finally, participants were given the opportunity to comment on how they experienced the process of the study. Therefore, the overall goal of the analysis was to organize the data without eliminating the details from the focus groups.
Conclusion
In qualitative research, the researcher should focus on “thick descriptions” of research findings and provide a clear description of the characteristics of the sample. To begin with, some descriptive statistics regarding the socio-demographic data of the participants will be provided. The impact of culture on parenting, and in particular on attachment, will then be examined in more detail.
Socio-demographics
- General understandings of family roles
- General understandings of infant-caregiver behaviors
- Impact of culture on parenting
- Impact of culture on attachment
- Other factors impacting upon parenting
- Parenting programs
I guess it's just the needs that the child has, like financial needs. And you find out that they are going to court over alimony so that the child will be provided for. We do not teach the child a sense of independence, because you sleep with the child.
When the child is in emotional pain, the mother must be prepared to comfort the child. It is part of the values that can appear in the child when he grows up.
Conclusion
Participants also suggested that the sensitivity of the caregiver and especially the quick responsiveness is central to the formation of the attachment relationship. But despite this support, it will be suggested that there are cultural differences in the ways in which attachment behaviors and practices are enacted. Finally, it will be suggested that there are specific barriers to attachment relationships in the South African context.
Support for attachment theory
Furthermore, participants noted that time spent with an infant is a key factor in fostering an attachment relationship. Thus, participants suggested that the amount of caregiving coincided with the quality of the attachment relationship. Consequently, participants provided a lay understanding of the importance of the attachment relationship for negotiating long-term developmental tasks.
Cultural variations in attachment theory
47 In addition to infant signaling behavior, participants noted the ways in which caregivers can improve the attachment relationship with their infants. Consequently, participants were clearly able to formulate some parent-led mechanisms to promote an attachment relationship with an infant. This finding therefore adds further support to the conclusion that participants understood the importance of sensitivity in fostering an attachment relationship.
Barriers to a secure attachment relationship .1 Absence of fathers
Conflict in the parental dyad
Participants suggested that as a result of conflict between a mother and father figure, a baby may be resented by both the mother and father. Indeed, the participants suggested that this situation could lead to abuse as a baby becomes the scapegoat for the conflict between parental figures. 51 and Cox (1997) specifically found that disorganized attachment behavior is associated with greater marital discord, as the conflict interferes with sensitive and involved parenting, especially in the infant-father relationship.
Unwanted infants
Thus, a hostile mother-father relationship can have a knock-on effect on caregiver-child attachment relationships by disrupting parental sensitivity and responsiveness.
Context of parenting
But here in the urban areas, my husband can do things that he cannot do in the rural areas. Therefore, the context of parenting appears to have changed significantly in the recent past for most participants, with participants experiencing greater exposure to Western parenting practices. Indeed, focus group discussions often indicated that participants were questioning traditional parenting practices.
Implications for parenting programs
Some useful terms to explain this transition in parenting practices might be acculturation and enculturation. It may be that Western culture has increasingly encroached upon Zulu culture, resulting in greater exposure to Western thought and practice, and in turn the process of acculturation. Furthermore, the process of acculturation occurs at different times for individuals, and as such, even within the same family, individuals may be at different stages of acculturation (Atkinson & Matsushita, 1991).
Conclusion
Third, this research study suggested that family planning services and contraceptive availability may need to be increased in addition to attachment programs. It has been suggested that attachment programs should involve extended family members and should be marketed with an emphasis on discipline. Finally, it has been suggested that attachment programs must work hand in hand with family planning and contraceptive availability.
Reflexivity
Temple and Edwards (2002) use the term “identity boundaries” to describe the social positioning of the translator. Therefore, the identity boundary of the translator fluctuated throughout the focus group discussions, sometimes connecting her with the participants, and other times placing her in opposition to the participants. As described in the methodology section, theoretical analysis was used to analyze the focus group transcripts.
Study limitations
This means that this research project is an amalgamation of different subjectivities, and as such, is subject to a number of assumptions and biases based on social positions and identity boundaries. Thus, I acknowledge that this research was not value-free, but involved the interactions of multiple identities and power dynamics.
Recommendations for future research
In addition, this study suggested that a father may actually be detrimental to an infant's attachment relationship if he is involved in a state of conflict with the infant's mother. Finally, using the results of this study, an attachment program could be specifically designed and piloted with a sample of isiZulu-speaking mothers. Therefore, this study has provided some exploratory hypotheses that can be further refined in future research programs.
Conclusion
The data from this study will be used to inform future parenting programs that may be implemented in this community. You will be asked to answer some questions in this discussion and comment on the answers of other women in this group. If you are willing to participate in this discussion, please read and sign this consent form.
Eye contact
73 From birth, swaddling a baby helps when he/she is tired. that he/she feels safer. Using the questionnaire to facilitate discussion, participants were asked to discuss how babies develop and what role parents play in this development. After this discussion, participants were asked to watch a series of short video clips about early bonding between mother and child.
Siblings
Distressed baby
Application of program
Please continue to think about this topic during the week and let me know next week if there are any additional things you have thought about.
