This study: "Godly Manhood": Evangelical Constructions of Masculinities in A South African Context – A Case Study of the Mighty Men's Conference (MMC) is one that seeks to make a contribution in this field of research from a religion (Christian theological) and gender perspective. The study examines how faith discourses within the Mighty Men's Conference (MMC) shape perceptions and constructions of masculinities within contemporary Protestant (mainly charismatic, evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity) in post-apartheid South Africa.
Background and Context
Perceived Crisis in Masculinity
In light of Walker's claim, the nature of the crisis in masculinity is detrimental and appears to take on multiple dimensions. Recent research suggests that violent masculinities of the past have, if anything, become more violent in the present (Walker 2005:228).
The Post-Apartheid Political Context
In his later work, Morrell (2002:2) further draws on Messner's work on the men's movement in the United States by identifying how men respond to the crisis of masculinity, and highlights similar responses to those gleaned from Connell's work. I will discuss these three categories later in the thesis when I examine how the Mighty Men's movement responds to some experiences of the transition as a religious group.
The Need for “Responsible” Men
Chapter six examines the MMC's faith discourses within the 'perceived' crises of masculinity in South Africa. My aim was therefore to explore the faith discourses of the MMC within the concept of perceived crises in masculinities in South Africa.
Preliminary Literature Review
Defining Masculinity
Others have even pointed out that the term “masculinity” is rarely defined (see McMahon 1993). To put this succinctly: what we mean by 'masculinity' has been problematized by some theorists11.
Studying Masculinity or Masculinities?
It is therefore more acceptable to use the term 'masculinity', which corresponds to cultural constructions and expressions of masculinity15 (see Connell 1995, Morrell 2001a). Adriaan van Klinken (2011a); As scholars of religion and masculinity in Southern Africa, Sarojini Nadar (2009) and Rubeena Partab (2012) have highlighted the fact that religion is a major force that should be associated with the construction of masculinity in African cultures.
Men and Masculinity Studies: A Feminist Persuasion?
On this issue, Kimmel (1987a:10) points out that men's studies addressed similar questions to the study of men and masculinity. While women's studies has fundamentally revised the traditional academic canon, men's studies seeks to use that revision as the basis for its exploration of men and masculinity.
Rationale
Important to this current research and its purpose in examining masculinities among the CEPC, is to continue the ongoing conversations among African scholars and theologians in particular, who have taken it as their mission to engage issues of masculinity within the intersection of gender and religion from one perspective to another (see for example Nadar 2009; West 2010; Chitando and Chirongoma 2012; Partab 2012; . and van Klinken's 2013). For this reason, scholars of gender and religion argue that religion should be treated with suspicion (see van Klinken 2011a: 8, 22).
Critical Questions and Objectives
Broad Questions which Shape the Study
How faith discourses within MMC shape perceptions and constructions of masculinities within contemporary Protestant Christianity in post-apartheid South Africa, and to what extent these constructions of masculinities either reinscribe patriarchal oppression or contribute to gender-social transformation. To assess to what extent these constructions of masculinity hold potential for gender social transformation.
Structure of Thesis
Chapter seven provides discourses of faith on masculinity within a socio-political post-apartheid context as depicted by Buchan and the MMC. In the chapter I draw from religious discourse about Christ's masculinity as depicted by the MMC.
Introduction
The elusive, fluid and complex nexus of masculinity in modern society adds to the complexity of researching and writing in. I therefore turn to examine some early developments in social theory that have influenced psychology, and thus the sociology of masculinity in the social sciences as an academic discipline. .
Psychoanalysis Theory
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis Theory
19 It is equally important to note that other scholars working in the field of masculinity in the field of psychology have found Freud's theory to be useful. At the heart of this study is the need to question some traditional representations of men as stereotypes that encourage men to live apart from personality.
The Sex/Gender Role Theory
Criticisms of Sex Role Theory
A thorough critique of sex/gender role theory only began in the mid-to-late 1980s with second-wave feminism and theorists of patriarchy who argued for a new trajectory in the critical study of men (Whitehead 2002:22). Noted by theorists of masculinity (Whitehead 2002:22; Connell et al 2005:5) the gender/gender role theory is founded on biological determinism, where 'roles are added to biology to give us gender.' In this way, it can be argued that in the analysis of the gender role theory, it is clear that the theory cannot provide an explanation for differences between women and men, especially regarding power issues.
The Sexual Anatomy Theory
Criticisms of the Sexual Anatomy Theory
Important to consider at this point is Sean Gill's suggestion that such an inquiry should seek to clarify the ways in which religious doctrines, symbols and practices (and I would add 'gender scripts')23 function in the creation and in maintaining ideas about masculinity. In this case, “faith discourses” appear to reinforce sociocultural gender scripts that seek to conceptualize masculine expectations of how to respond within a set socio-economic and political context among charismatic evangelical Christians.
A Social Constructionist Approach to Gender and Masculinity
Second, while different masculinities are produced within a particular social environment, there is a need to understand the nature of the relationship between "multiplicities of masculinities." Therefore, Connell (1987) introduced the concept of "hegemonic masculinity" as one of the outcomes of the social constructionist approaches to masculinity. The intersection of cultural ideals and institutional power that results in the formation of dominant hegemonic masculinity requires interrogation in this study, which focuses on representations and constructions of masculinities within charismatic evangelical Christianity.
Intersectionality
Locating Intersectionality Approach within Critical Feminist Theory
As such, feminist theology involves various intersections that impact societies, and its discourse begins with women's experiences. I think the reason why the Christian message reinforces women's experiences of oppression could be because.
A Critical Evaluation of the Intersectionality Approach
Criticisms surrounding the concept of intersectionality have focused on a number of concerns, particularly in the United States and Europe (Davis 2011:43). However, on the other hand, I would argue that this is what makes intersectionality unique, as the researcher will always strive to find the “missing +”. The question should not be whether the idea of intersectionality is the right analogy to use, but the main question is the tendency of this framework to capture different images in explaining its theoretical position in a diverse way to enrich research.
The Rationale Underling Intersectionality Approach for Masculinity Studies . 49
Third, these social factors and identity categories therefore work together to influence the construction of masculinity. Conceptualizing masculinity from an intersectional perspective places my analysis of masculinity within the sociological lineage of intersectionality.
Literature Review on the Study of Masculinities in Southern Africa
Pre-colonial African Masculinities and a Quest for ‘Victorian Manliness’
To a large extent, it is clear that masculine power of senior men in the community also plays a major role in constructions of masculinity within a traditional African context. The discourse suggests a complex and contradictory description of what it meant to be a man in the lived realities of Apartheid South Africa.
South Africa and Construction of Masculinities
Hegemonies and Construction of Masculinities in South Africa
- Hegemonic White Masculinity
- Hegemonic Black Masculinity
Secondly, the acceptance of hegemonic masculinity in South Africa has led to its use either to a lesser or greater degree for the periodization and analysis of masculinity36 (Morrell et al. 2012:15). 36 See Morrell et al., (2012) for a detailed understanding of how the concept of hegemonic masculinity has been used in South African gender research.
Aggressive Masculinities in Apartheid South Africa
- Militant Masculinities
- Struggle Masculinity
- Tsotsi and Street Masculinity
- Comrade Masculinity
She states: “In South Africa, a man who is unwilling to serve in defense of the country and its people would hardly be considered a man.” To some extent, this demonstrates the claim that portrays a crisis in masculinity that has been identified in studies of masculinity in South Africa over the past decade (see Walker 2005).
The Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians Engage Men
African Men and Women Theologians Explore Redemptive Masculinities
44 As used by Chitando and Chirongoma, the term "dangerous masculinities" refers to the negative/stereotypical conceptions of manhood that emphasize exploitative and abusive aspects of manhood, including traits such as risky sexual behavior, drug and alcohol abuse, and violence against women and children. In their volume on Redemptive Masculinities: Men HIV and Religion, Chitando and Chirongoma (2012) engage the concept of "redemptive masculinities" as one that emphasizes the importance of religio-cultural resources in the emergence of liberating, "more peaceful and harmonious masculinities ". .” They argue that such redemptive masculinities evoke a spiritual dimension that seeks to develop masculinities that promote health and well-being for all (2012).
Introduction
The interpretation and control of a core symbolic system in the case of gender issues in the Evangelical subculture is not fixed and permanent, but is on the contrary the result of a continuous process of construction. production), which involves a tremendous amount of negotiation characterized by conflict (Ingersoll 2003:16).
Towards a Definition of Evangelicals and “Evangelicalism”
Evangelical Christianity: A Historical Synopsis
46 Originally, lowercase "evangelical" was occasionally used to mean the term "of the gospel." Balcomb (2001) argues that the roots of evangelicals can be traced to the Montanist movement of the second century.
Defining Evangelicalism
As such, I refer to the MMC as an evangelical phenomenon that fulfills every aspect of the definition of evangelical Christianity discussed in the previous paragraphs. Charismatic Evangelical Christianity,” because Evangelicalism is a theological school of thought that was observed to span several denominations that attended the MMC.
Charismatic Evangelical Christianity in South Africa
Charismatic Evangelical Theology
James Hunter's (1983:61) observation is informative in this case in showing that there is an understanding among evangelicals of the Bible “in its plain and obvious sense” and this constitutes a “common sense literalism” as a method of interpretation . What is important to remember is that every reader of the Bible is also an interpreter of the text (Tiénou 1990:12 and West 2001:169) and for the Bible to serve as authoritative at all, it must be read, explained and interpreted by someone (Owino 2010: 46).
Hierarchy and Gender Ordering
Unlike Hebrew thought, Ruether (1993) points out that Greek thought/philosophy elevates human (masculine) consciousness to the same transcendent status as God, outside and above nature. As Primavesi (2000) observes, this kind of hierarchical ordering could lead to the confirmation of some violent interactions between men and women and the relations between man and nature.
Evangelical Ideals and Gender Patterns
Egalitarian View
He argues that "to claim that women must submit to the authority of men in family life and in the churches is to place them in an unequal position and to subject them to the domination and control of men". According to Olson (2004), therefore, egalitarianism established inequality as unjust and contrary to the liberating spirit of Christ, in which all disciples of Christ are his friends.
Complementarian View
The main objective of this chapter is to explore the discourses of belief of the Powerful Men's Conference (MMC) within the concept of "perceived" crises in masculinity in South Africa. There is no doubt that Christian men are not living up to the ideals of 'godly manhood' expected in light of the answers above.
The Implications of Evangelical Gander Hierarchy on Perceptions
Research Method and Design
Qualitative “Multimethods” Research Approach
Michael Myers notes that the purpose of qualitative research methods is to help researchers understand people, what they say and do, in order to explain the social and cultural phenomena within the contexts in which people live (see also Myers 2009:5). It is from this background that the qualitative research method becomes appropriate and applicable in the investigation of representation and construction of emerging masculinity.
The Mighty Men’s Conference (MMC): Why this Movement as a Case
This study therefore sought to explore whether there are representations of emerging forms of masculinity in the process of these Christian men renegotiating masculine ideals to affirm their masculine identity based on their experiences. This research revealed that the MMC had called for a return to 'divine masculinity' as a search for the process of 'recreating' and 'restoring masculinity' in the South African context.
The Research Process
- Participants
- Defining and Chosing the Study Sample
- Demographics of the Research Sample
- Advertising the Research and Gaining Entry to the MMC
- Data Production, Research Methods and Procedure
- Individual in-depth Interviews
- In-depth Interviews with the Three Pastors
- In-depth Interviews with the ‘Mighty Men’
- Managing the Data
- Researcher Participation and Researcher Observation
- Secondary Data Collection Methods and Processes
A total of 34 men were approached and unreservedly accepted to participate in this research as a representation of MMC. In-depth interviews proved useful for this study as participants were able to demonstrate their experiences with MMC.
Data Analysis Method and Techniques
Analytical Thematic Induction
First, it was important that I familiarized myself with and delved into the data through reading and rereading. The table below illustrates some of the themes and subthemes that emerged dominantly from the data.
Discourse Analysis
Therefore, my approach to discourse analysis was to look for "hidden themes" about how language and symbols were used in religious discourses to create and sustain representations. In this light, I first began by looking at how binary oppositions were used in religious discourses to show religious/Christian understandings and representations of masculinity and femininity in the data.
Praxeological Intersectional Analysis
Also important in the whole process of intersectional analysis is the need to explore the place of religion (especially Christianity in this case) by questioning its intersections with other social factors. In this case, intersectional analysis used both a deductive (theoretically driven) approach and an inductive (open to surprise) procedural method (Winker and Degele 2011:57).
Methodological Limitations
These provide readers with detailed descriptions of the structures of meaning that develop in a specific context. After informing movement officials of my research in early 2012, it was impossible to arrange an interview session with Mr.
Ethical Considerations
Respecting the dignity of the participants, the purpose of this study was explained and it was explained to the participants that their participation was voluntary, although all were encouraged to participate. It was also ensured that a true representation of the study findings was presented by confirming all the information used, thereby avoiding dishonesty.
Research Reflexivity
The Perceived Crisis of Feminism
When asked why the Mighty Men phenomenon has become such an incredible force to be reckoned with in the world, I can only say that it is because men are starting to take their rightful positions again, at home, in business, in politics, in the world. sport in culture (2012:99). Man's masculinity in today's world, in this 21st century, is being eroded and broken down.
The Perceived Crisis of Gender Performance
Buchan's longing for men like those of David's thirty Mighty Men, who did amazing things and accomplished extraordinary feats for God, are an indication that there is a. In light of this response, a perceived crisis in masculinity among Mighty Men is portrayed as men become irresponsible, men who have stepped back, “and not taken their stand as real men and powerful men.” From a charismatic, evangelical faith discourse, what Mighty Men #6 indicates with “the devil has attacked the man as a leadership figure and as a head” alludes to the belief that masculinities are in crisis.
The Perceived Crises of Sexuality
- Perceived Crisis of Irresponsible Sexuality
- Perceived Crisis of Same-gender Sexualities
This in itself highlights a perceived crisis in masculinity, where marital commitment appears to be a 'bitter marriage pill' for some men. The expectation of men to be 'mighty' and strong (brave men), men of high morals, men whom women can trust and feel safe with, demonstrates a perceived crisis in masculinity when it comes to men who handle their sexuality in a responsible way.
The Perceived Crisis of Fatherhood
For Buchan, the lack of fathers leads to a lack of role models that ultimately results in a troubled South Africa as young men begin to flex their muscles. Buchan therefore emphasizes the need for 'divine fatherhood'. The "problem of a fatherless nation" is rightly a cause and continues to be at the heart of the violent and dangerous masculinities on display in South Africa.
The Mighty Men’s Conference Responds to Crises of Masculinity
This therefore helps us to understand Buchan's call for 'godly fatherhood.' MMC therefore responds to perceived crisis of fatherhood by seeking to recreate Christian. I have concluded that the MMC is a reactionary (defensive) response to feminist progress, gender change and socio-economic shifts in South Africa.
Introduction
It is important to note that the ideologies of powerful men's need for forgiveness intersect and conflict with representations and religious discourses of racial reconciliation. In this second part of the chapter, I highlight how mighty men sought to enact patterns of responsible divine masculinity.
The Social-Political Post-Apartheid Context
Conflicting Perceptions of Masculinities in Faith Discourses on
One such alternative discourse was depicted by the idea of the "Esau man" or the. The masculinity of God is best known through the interpretation of the metaphors and analogies used in the Christian Scriptures.
Conflicting Perceptions of Masculinities in Faith Discourse on Racial
Faith Discourses on Post-apartheid Authoritarian Patriarchal
The ‘Esau Man’ and ‘Bedroom Boys’ Allegories of Manhood
Note his use of "A woman has a very special role at the heart of the home. Therefore, the Mighty Men's role as breadwinners stood as a symbol of ideal godly manhood, calling men to take back the headship and leadership.
Divine Order Through Binary Opposition
A Masculine God ‘Ideal’ for Mighty Men’s Masculinities
Therefore, religious discourses on notions of God's masculinity shape men's identities and perceptions of divine masculinity. I now discuss how the Mighty Men understood their responsibilities as godly men in relation to Buchan and MMC's theology of God's order and plan.
Performing the ‘Ideal’ Responsible Godly Manhood among the
Godly Manhood Portrayed in Headship and Provider Roles
Even at home, they are not powerful if they do not take initiative and responsibility as the head of the family. Buchan argues that man's dignity and honor are undermined primarily because a man is unable to clothe and feed his wife and children.
Godly Manhood Portrayed in ‘Responsible’ Leadership Roles
- The Prophetic Role of Godly Manhood
- The Priestly Role of Godly Manhood
- The Kingly Role of Godly Manhood
- A Critique of the Male Roles of Prophet, Priest and King
Marie (2012) from her recent research with Christian women in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, shows how Christian teachings must challenge perceptions of gender roles in relation to theologies of work. Buchan's literal application of the Bible in the attempt to negotiate perceptions of masculinity within tensions of gender roles and productive work of breadwinner is thus challenged.
Godly Manhood Portrayed in Masculine Emotionalism
Introduction
Can a Male Christ Save?
Buchan and the Mighty Men Talk About ‘Christ-like’ Masculinities
Reconfiguring and Transforming Religiously Constructed Masculinities . 204
Kenotic Masculinity
Redemptive and Liberating Masculinity
Masculinities of Partnership and Equality
An Empirical Study on the Mighty Men’s Conference (MMC)
Major Implications of Study Findings
Contribution to New Knowledge and Areas for Further Research
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