Of all the twists and turns I've negotiated on this journey, writing this sermon has been more than difficult because everyone I've had the privilege of meeting clearly deserves a mention. The study further examines the benefits or otherwise that have been achieved courtesy of the Africanization of Nigeria's foreign policy objectives from 1960 to 2010; and possible factors responsible for many.
CHAPTER ONE
- Background to the Study
- Statement of Problem
- Scope of the Study
- Limitations of the Study
- Significance of the Study
- Objectives of the Study The study seeks to: The study seeks to
- Research Questions
- Main Hypothesis
- Theoretical Framework: Rethinking the Utility of the Realist Approach
- Research Methodology and Study Design
The relevance of the study will be appreciated by academics interested in researching Nigeria's efforts towards conflict resolution and peace building in Africa. Undertake a critical assessment of the relationship between Nigeria's role in conflict resolution in Africa and the defense of its national interests;.
CHAPTER TWO
Defining Conflict
- Conflict Prevention
- Conflict Management
- Conflict Resolution
- Intervention
- Peace building
Galtung (1992:55) further explains that a conflict can take the form of the "less crystallized and the crystallized". More specifically, conflict prevention is often associated with the concept of the Early Warning system.
Conceptualizing Foreign Policy
- The Primacy of the National Interest
- Understanding Nigeria’s Foreign Policy
- Centripetal determinants of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy
- The Centrifugal determinants of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy
- Fundamental Principles of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy
It is important to emphasize that the protection of the national interest is crucial for any foreign policy articulation. This concept is fundamental to the formation of what later became Nigerian foreign policy. Aluko (1977:2) argues that the centrifugal forces that determine Nigeria's foreign policy consist of the following essential components:
Providing adequate answers to these questions requires an interrogation of the fundamental principles contained in Nigeria's foreign policy.
Reconsidering the Utility of Diplomacy
Diplomacy thus becomes the basic technique of the state's operation, i.e. the primary instrument for the implementation of its foreign policy and acts as the main strategy with which the state This could be done by persuading, changing and adapting the country's position through the use of force or negotiation. However, in what appears to be a distinction between foreign policy and diplomacy, Childs (1984:64) argues that a country's foreign policy is "the essence of a country's foreign relations, while diplomacy is concerned with the process through which foreign policy is carried out."
Based on the above analysis, could the supposed shift in Nigeria's foreign policy orientation from its hitherto traditional Afrocentric stance to citizen diplomacy represent a more aggressive defense of the country's national interests.
Conceptualizing Citizen Diplomacy
We must ask ourselves a difficult question: to what extent has our foreign policy benefited Nigerians? Rather, it appears to have been an attempt to show Nigerians that the government was serious about reforming the country's foreign policy orientation. Given his responsibility as a career diplomat, Maduekwe was expected to protect Nigeria's national interests; However, several observers of Nigeria's foreign policy process have argued that citizen diplomacy closely resembled the country's traditional Afro-centric orientation (see Adebajo, 2008; Gambari, 2008; and Osuntokun, 2008).
President Goodluck Jonathan, who was close in command to the late president, also failed to define the pattern that Nigeria's foreign policy would follow in the wake of the high-level politicization of the processes that led to his emergence as acting president.
Conclusion
CHAPTER THREE
Introduction
The Historical Evolution of the Liberian State
The Americo-Liberians were able to retain power because of the unwavering support they received from the United States. Adebajo (2002:23) notes that for over a decade, Liberia was the scene of one of the deadliest wars in Africa with over 200,000 Liberians killed and over a million others displaced. 12 The pyramidal social structure refers to the establishment of a system in Liberia that encouraged and supported the socio-political and economic dominance of Americo-Liberians over the local population, leading to a system in which the former occupied the top positions in society while they were natives released to the base.
13 Sergeant Samuel Kayon Doe was President of Liberia between 1980 and 1990; with the support of the White House, he was known to have ruled Liberia with an iron fist, earning him a place in the class of the late Idi-Amin of Uganda and the self-proclaimed emperor Jean-Bedel Bokassa.
The Samuel Doe Era in Liberia
However, it is instructive to note that despite the several attempts made by ECOMOG to ensure the containment of the war in Liberia, it nevertheless had a knock-on effect on its neighboring countries. As a result, dozens of foreigners were killed in the crises; with countries such as Sierra Leone, Ghana and Nigeria witnessing a large influx of refugees (Adebajo, 2008:178). After a series of peace agreements, including the election of a former warlord (Charles Taylor) as president, along with the signing of a Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), in 2003 the Liberian government and rebel groups set a framework for peace building. and post-conflict reconstruction.
An understanding of the reasons for Nigeria's involvement in the Liberian crisis is necessary to facilitate a proper understanding of the basis of its intervention and its linkage with Nigeria's conflict resolution mechanisms in Africa.
Nigeria in Liberia: Between Personal and National Interests
Historically, Nigeria's involvement in the crisis has its roots in the 13th session of the ECOWAS Authority of Heads of State and Government held from 28 to 30 May 1990 in The Gambia. Each of the reasons cited above is investigated to determine its truth or otherwise. Another reason cited by this group of scholars for Nigeria's intervention in Liberia was that some 3,000 Nigerians were reportedly held hostage due to the ongoing war in Liberia.
Against the background of the analysis of both movements, this study concludes that there are three alternative explanations for the Nigerian intervention in Liberia.
Three Alternative Explanation(s) for Nigeria’s Involvement in Liberia
Citing a final reason that influenced Nigeria's intervention role in the Liberian crisis, Kupolati noted that the Nigerian military was extremely keen to demonstrate to the international community that it possessed the requisite professionalism, manpower and resources to bring peace even outside the to maintain Nigerian territory. . A combination of all these factors led to Nigeria's involvement in Liberia between 1990 and 1997, under the banner of ECOMOG. This led to the hostility, abuse and open confrontation faced by the remaining Nigeria-led ECOMOG troops who stayed back under the terms of the Abuja settlement, as well as the molestation of law-abiding Nigerians residing in Liberia.
Thus, it can be concluded that the role of Nigeria in Liberia was mainly promoted by the leadership and aspirations of the Babangida regime for international recognition.
The International Dimension to the Crisis The Role of the Nigerian-led ECOMOG The Role of the Nigerian-led ECOMOG
Sawyer, President of the Interim Government of Liberia; Charles Taylor of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL); Dr. Salim Ahmed Salim, the then Secretary General of the now defunct Organization of African Unity (OAU); and Mrs. Dayle E. Spencer, who at the time was the Special Representative of the International Negotiations Network (INN). The signatories of the agreements concluded at the meeting included representatives of IGNU, ULIMO and NPFL.
These disputes were sparked by complaints of mistreatment of ECOMOG troops by the Liberian Armed Forces (Adebajo, 2008).
Assessing Post-conflict Reconstruction Efforts in Liberia The Role of the United Nations (UN) The Role of the United Nations (UN)
Furthermore, the financial costs of the seven-year intervention were borne by the government of Nigeria, as in the Chadian conflict in 1980 (Omede, 1995; and Adeyemi, 1999). The verdict was not carried out due to the appeal filed by Charles Taylor's defense team. It should also be noted the overwhelming impact that the Nigeria-led ECOMOG mission had on the foreign policy position of the United States in West Africa.
Before the outbreak of war, it was often believed that the entire West African sub-region was attached to the apron strings of the USA.
Rethinking the Human Development Crisis in Liberia
In order to gain a better understanding of the crisis of underdevelopment facing the Liberian state, this study examines the economic and social dimensions of the crisis. The economic indicators shown in Table 1 clearly capture the two main indices for measuring the human development crisis in Liberia: unemployment and poverty. It is important to note that this does not suggest that the Liberian state is where it is today solely because of the effects of the war.
However, the figures of 2009 show that about 43.17% of the country's population still did not know how to read and write.
Conclusion
As Zounmenou (2008:8) puts it, “the summary of the ongoing human development crisis in Liberia is sympathetic to a termite that has eaten deep into the fabric of Liberian society”. The dimensions of the crisis, reflected in the areas outlined above, show that the country has not yet fully recovered from the devastating effects of the post Doe and Taylor eras. This chapter also addressed the roles played by various state and non-state actors both in the resolution of the Liberian crisis and in post-reconstruction efforts in Liberia.
The chapter will also establish the (possible) connection between this intervention and others undertaken by Nigeria in Africa within the dictates of the country's foreign policy.
CHAPTER FOUR
Introduction
Nigeria’s Political History in Brief
The Babangida regime lasted between August 27, 1985 and August 27, 1993 before he voluntarily stepped down following widespread protests and demonstrations that greeted the administration's annulment of the general elections held in 1993. Under Obasanjo, Nigeria became highly influential in transforming Organization of African Unity in the African Union in July 2001. Nigeria was also instrumental in the formation of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) in 2002, and was a key player in the reinstatement of President Fradique de Menezes of Sao Tome and Principe who were ousted during a state visit to Nigeria in 2003.
Based on this information, a review of the key institutions, models and processes of foreign policy making in Nigeria is undertaken with a view to providing a clearer understanding of some of the underlying philosophies behind Nigeria's involvement in conflict resolution. in Africa.
Towards Understanding Nigeria’s Foreign Policy Making Process
Specifically, Section 19, Sub-section II of the 1999 Constitution recognizes the broad principles enshrined in Nigeria's foreign policy which include:. A noticeable flaw in the 1999 constitution, as Fawole (2004:9) pointed out, is its failure to spell out the actual content or direction of Nigeria's foreign policy. Against the background of this rather generalized conception of foreign policy in the 1999 constitution, the country's leadership is thus called upon to determine the form and specific direction that Nigeria's foreign policy should follow.
In the realm of foreign policy making, the combined branches of the legislature perform a much greater function.
Nigeria Role’s in Sub-regional Security
Shoup (2007) also credited ECOMOG with holding back the spillover effect the war was beginning to have in Sierra Leone, particularly for its role in helping to repel rebel advances into the country until United Nations forces The United arrived in 1998. According to Ebohon and Obakhedo, the international influence and personality of Obasanjo's civilian administration turned Nigeria into a key peace broker for both the UN and the AU. Based on the above, a tabular illustration of Nigeria's involvement in peacekeeping and conflict resolution is presented to facilitate understanding of how much commitment Nigeria has brought to its quest to ensure peace and stability in West Africa, Africa and the rest of the world.
Somalia UNOSOM I United Nations operation in Somalia I. April 1992 March 1993 Somalia UNOSOM II United Nations operation.
Conclusion - Where is the Citizen in Nigeria’s Afro-centrism?
In the ECOWAS Community Court of Justice only 7 percent of the staff are Nigerians, and that. This calls into question the kind of citizen diplomacy that Nigeria claims to be practicing when it cannot protect the interests of its citizens. These are just examples of the kind of citizen diplomacy that the Nigerian government is making available to its people.
These are just a few examples of the way the Nigerian government pursues its citizen diplomacy.
CHAPTER FIVE
Summary of findings
This included contextualizing the Liberian state; including the roles of various actors in the Seven Years' War. In terms of the practical application of the qualitative research methodology adopted for the study, using a content analysis approach, the study interrogated Nigeria's conflict resolution in Africa largely from a foreign policy approach. Theoretically, the adoption of a realist approach helped to understand the underlying reasons for Nigeria's interventionist role in West Africa and in Africa in general, especially when viewed from the perspective of the three concepts of survival, self-help and statism.
Nigeria's Afrocentric foreign policy informed the leadership of the ECOWAS/ECOMOG-led intervention in Liberia; this framework was later adopted for the missions in Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau and Ivory Coast.
Recommendations
2003): “The Peacekeeping Potential of African Regional Organizations” in Boulden, J. ed.), Coping with Conflict in Africa: The United Nations and Regional Organizations, Macmillan: Houndsmill. 1966): „International Theory‟ The Case for a Classical Approach, published by John Hopkins University Press, USA. 2006): "Anambra Crisis as an Open Wound of Nigeria's Democracy", available online at www.aspanet.org.
1995) 'The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping in West Africa: The ECOWAS Operation in Liberia, Journal of Modern African Studies Volume 33/Issue 04/December 1995.
