I would also like to express my gratitude to the National Research Foundation for funding this research. I would also like to thank my brothers Roy and Russell for their support.
Urbanisation and poverty in sub-Saharan Africa
Urbanisation and its implications for food security in South Africa
This urban drift led to the growth of the urban population after 1994 and was reflected in dynamic pressures in the form of poverty and unemployment. Remnants from the apartheid period are townships, where most of the urban poor live.
Citizen participation in South Africa
The statement above sheds light on the highly bureaucratic nature of government and makes the prospect of a people-centered society an elusive ideal. In light of the above, this study takes a critical stance towards viewing participation as "a 'Hurrah' word, which brings a warm glow to its users and hearers" (White, 1996:7).
Unpacking deliberative and instrumental participation
Therefore, even if there is an exchange of ideas, citizens' input will not be reflected in the program plans. So while invented spaces are drawn from the top down in a hierarchical sense, invented spaces emerge from the bottom up (Piper, 2011:32).
Overview of the One Home One Garden Programme
In seeking to explore the nature of participation processes in the OHOG program in KwaMashu, my aim goes beyond understanding whether participants actively participated in the program. Households participating in the program received a free "food production package", each containing a variety of seeds (predominantly vegetables) and farming tools.
Rationale and relevance of the study
All define how to achieve food security from the perspective of the "gardener" in the context of this study. As noted above, the principles of the Food Sovereignty Framework are rooted in the narratives of
Food Sovereignty Framework
Research objectives and questions
The overall aim of the study is to explore the experiences and perceptions of the urban households in KwaMashu about their role in the development and implementation of the OHOG programme. Drawn from the objectives, the following research questions were used to address the main research question;.
Methodology
Outline of the thesis
Using the Food Security Framework as a tool for analysis, I explore the participatory process of the OHOG program in relation to the research questions listed above. In the last chapter, I provide a brief conclusion of the thesis, with particular emphasis on the data collection process and the key findings of the study.
Introduction
Development of the discourse of participation in development
In explaining the relationship between citizens and participatory practices of government, Muraleedharan (2006:25) argues that past practices of the modernization era where participants were "marginally involved in the drama of development". Arnstein (1969) and Escobar (1995) echo the same criticisms of simply repackaging top-down approaches under the guise of bottom-up approaches.
The rhetoric of participation
Despite broad proclamations of the importance of 'true' citizen participation, there seems to be minimal progress in embracing the involvement of citizens in development projects. They expand their understanding of the concept by emphasizing the importance of using "social change" to prevent oppression.
Empowerment and participation
More participation can also be reduced to window dressing exercises that give participants the impression that their input really counts in the final outcome of the program. Therefore, in the context of the study, homogenizing the needs of participants reduces them to passive participants because they have different preferences, for example gardening practices and the type of seeds.
The ambivalence of citizen participation in South Africa
Legislation and policy in the South African context
The Municipal Structure Act dedicates chapter 4, part 4 § 72 to the function of parish committee, which focuses on developing conditions that are favorable for participation in local government. In addition, the urgent tone of the National Framework for Public Participation (2007) and the eThekwini Community Participation Policy (2006) reflect bottom-up and inclusive participation in policy-making.
Mechanisms for participatory planning
In particular, section 195(1) (e) with reference to public participation in the public service states that "people's needs must be responded to, and the public must be encouraged to participate in policy-making." At the local governance level, Article 151(1) (e), 152 obliges municipalities and local government to involve citizens in matters of local government. Matshediso expands this definition by emphasizing that the term, derived from isiZulu/isiXhosa language or kgotla in Sesotho, refers to a 'gathering' in the form of a community meeting designed to involve citizens directly in the government's policy making process involve.
Decision-making in food security projects
Urban agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa
Urban agriculture in South Africa
Two-thirds of participants agreed that the projects were farmer-oriented and over 80% stated that they were directly related to the programme. This finding, in light of the Food Sovereignty Framework, warrants further interrogation as it alludes to farmers' inability to control their agricultural production under the development programme.
Community gardening in KwaZulu-Natal
In one of the findings, more than half of the respondents agreed that the projects were bureaucratic while 42% were uncertain (2013:87).
Participation in home gardening interventions
The South African context
In the South African context, studies of urban home gardens have also attracted little attention in recent research, leaving a significant gap in our understanding of urban food security (Crush and Frayne, 2010:20). As highlighted in the sections above, South African food policy is based on food security, which is silent on ownership and local control.
Unearthing the role of citizens in One Home One Garden programme
Khanyile's study draws our attention to some of the effects of the OHOG program on poverty in and does not focus on structural power relations. This study therefore addresses this gap by closely examining the participating space in the OHOG program in KwaMashu district.
Conclusion
This weakness stems from her use of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) as a conceptual framework. Her study provides insight into community-level engagement, but does not delve into the role of participants in program development.
Introduction
Citizen participation in South Africa
In her chapter on democracy in industry, Pateman (1980) also points out the double connotation of the concept of 'participation' in the literature. This is contrary to the fourth principle of the Food Sovereignty Framework, which 'places control locally' (Via Campesina, 2008).
Spaces for citizen participation
In this context, citizen participation is crucial to solving the issue of food sovereignty, which is adapted to the study's objectives. In this context, exploration of participatory spaces for poor urban households is essential to address food sovereignty, which is aligned with the study's objectives.
Food sovereignty versus food security
Advocates of food sovereignty emphasize that the model of food security excludes direct involvement related to issues of democracy and local production (Schanbacher, 2010:74). A related strength of food sovereignty is that it encompasses discourses of democracy, rights and participation (Schanbacher, 2010:74; Patel, 2009:666).
Carving out spaces of citizen participation in agricultural practices
The food sovereignty framework therefore offers an alternative approach to the ongoing violation of citizens' rights in the context of food production. Finally, it is important to discuss some of the criticisms that have been leveled against the food sovereignty framework.
Conclusion
Edelman (2014:10) also questions the meaning of sovereignty and the usefulness of the framework in the context of globalization. Finally, I demonstrate how the Food Sovereignty Framework, together with the invited/conceived concept, enables an in-depth understanding of the nature of citizen participation and its resulting implications.
Introduction
Research design
While participants from different divisions were used, they were all within the Ward 40 boundary of the township. In order to enrich the credibility and confirmability (Guba, 1981:80) of the study, methodological and data triangulation (Denzin, 1978, cited by Patton) was built into the study.
Study area and population
Location of the Study
This is also reflected in the Census 2011 statistics which show that only 27% of KwaMashu residents are in work. Although their low socio-economic status would undoubtedly lead the participants to engage in community gardening, I found it interesting to assess whether they had an impact on the implementation and development of the program.
Population sample
This was appropriate because this study is concerned with understanding the participants' experience of the food program in broad terms, and their level of consultative involvement in the program. In addition to understanding the role that the participants play in the program, I found it necessary to achieve a balance between all three sections in KwaMashu.
Entry into the field
In the third phase, I made household visits with a research assistant and an Arex Assistant from DAEA in order to schedule interview sessions and home garden visits. In compliance with this ethical protocol, the names of respondents used in the study are fictitious.
Research instruments
The question about positive or negative aspects of the program also provoked particularly interesting responses. The first part consisted of questions about decision-making processes prior to program implementation.
Data collection
Interviews
Interviews with key informants elicited in-depth responses about the reasons for choosing the participatory approaches used in the OHOG program. I ended the data collection exercise when there were no significant differences in the answers I received from the respondents, a process called
Participant observation
Since there was no activity in the allotment gardens in Section D, I simply observed the gardens and had 8 Names of the participants have been changed throughout the chapter to preserve the anonymity of their identities.
Data analysis
I highlighted each of the responses from the interviews in different colors to clearly visualize the relationship between the responses. Finally, to ensure the reliability of the translated interview transcripts, I shared these with the research assistant.
Limitations
Finally, based on my own experiences with questions about participation in development projects, I could have had my own preconceived notions about the gardener's experiences. Given the possibility of researcher bias in the data analysis procedure, noting my own thoughts and feelings helped me distinguish respondents' perceptions from my own.
Conclusion
Following the advice of Corbin and Strauss (2008:80), I channeled prior experiences into probes during interviews or informal discussions. Additionally, at the end of each interview I reflected on the interview process and wrote down my thoughts in a small journal and wrote them down at the end of each day.
Introduction
Development of the OHOG programme
Seeding participation into the programme
Key informant two: As I said, the program was a top-down approach; initially it started with the Prime Minister having to get rid of the poverty (ehhh) [..] in society. This was echoed in an interview with key informant four, who stated that citizens were meant to "buy into" the program.
Criteria for selection of participants
Third, the lack of involvement of the gardeners in the initial stages of the program confirms Nickson's claim that the extent to which government involves citizens in decision-making processes is limited (2011:3), especially in 'invited' spaces. This illustrates that the government saw the program as a strategy that poor urban households could use to curb food insecurity.
Methods used to inform residents of KwaMashu
This is summarized in the second principle of the Food Sovereignty Framework, which states that the opinions and contributions of gardeners are valuable (Via Campesina, 2008:5). This is clearly reflected in the lack of understanding about the kind of support the government would provide to gardeners.
Meaning of citizen participation in the OHOG
Relationship of the participants to the DAEA staff
However, participants in Section C and D noted that visits from the Arex Assistant were inconsistent. Gardeners in Section B had a 2,000 liter water tank in addition to a permanent well water source.
Nature of participation: deliberative or instrumental?
In this context, deliberative participation, which is one of the key tenants of the Food Sovereignty Framework, does not exist. One of the indicators of the lack of ownership was some of the respondents' reference to the program as their [the government's] program.
A reflection of citizen participation in the gardens
- Voices from the field: interest in growing one’s food
- Cultivation of participation in the OHOG programme
- Apathy to gardening
- One Home One Garden: A seed for change?
The instrumental nature of the program's participation process is evident in the types of vegetables grown by the respondents. As a result, she is cynical about the effectiveness of the program in KwaMashu.
Conclusion
In their study, gardeners were involved in all stages of decision-making processes, which had a positive impact on their food security status (2013:110). In contrast, in this study, participants were marginally involved in the implementation of the program, but there was no participation prior to implementation.
Introduction
Reflection on the objectives of the study
Approaches used to seed the programme
Consistent with previous studies (Boone, 2012; Dlamini, 2005; Kateshumbwa, 2012; Masifunde and Zingisa, 2010), this study confirms that program participant participation was non-existent prior to program implementation. In light of the democratic deficit prior to the implementation of the program, the research found that the methods used to inform citizens about the program were instrumental.
Participation ‘the peasant way’?
It can be concluded that not involving the gardeners in the initial phase had a negative impact on their ability to take ownership of the program. Although all gardeners said they had a good working relationship with DAEA staff, it was clear that Section B gardeners responded uncritically to their experiences with the program.
Reflection of participation in the gardens
The Relevance of the Food Sovereignty Framework
Implication on policy and practice
Suggestions for further research
Beyond the food desert: finding ways to talk about urban food security in South Africa. Frayne, B., Battersby-Lennard, J., Fincham, R and Haysom, G. Urban food security in South Africa: Case studies of Cape Town, Msunduzi and Johannesburg.
Informed consent –English
My signature below signifies that I agree to the terms of the survey and understand that my participation in the survey is voluntary; this means that you can freely opt out of the survey at any time during the research process.
Informed consent- IsiZulu
Interview guide for Key Informants
Interview guide for households- English version
Demographic profile of the participants by gender, age and location
Table displaying prominent themes that emerged from Section B,C and D