Exploring management practices of directors at early childhood education centres in Ghana
by
EMMANUEL DODZI ANYIDOHO
submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in the subject
EDUCATION
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: DR TA OGINA
OCTOBER 2023
i
DECLARATION
Name: EMMANUEL DODZI ANYIDOHO
Student Number: 60902426
Degree: Doctor of Philosophy in Education Management
EXPLORING MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF DIRECTORS AT EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CENTRES IN GHANA
I declare that the above thesis is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.
I further declare that I submitted the thesis to originality checking software and that it falls within the accepted requirements for originality.
I further declare that I have not previously submitted this work, or part of it, for examination at Unisa for another qualification or at any other higher education institution.
SIGNATURE DATE: OCTOBER 26, 2023
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DEDICATION
This study is dedicated to my late Uncle, Mr. Abraham Kwadzovi Anyidoho, and my Cousin Professor Kofi Anyidoho, respectively, for taking care of me after the death of my father at the age of five and preventing me from dropping out of school at Primary 4.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I thank God for the gift of life, grace, protection and guidance.
Words cannot express my gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. T.A. Ogina, who generously provided knowledge and expertise. I am grateful for her invaluable professional guidance, support, patience, and timely feedback; she has been the “Angel on my wings” throughout this journey.
Additionally, this endeavour would not have been possible without the generous support from Unisa's Student Funding Directorate, who financed my research.
I also could not have undertaken this journey without the permission granted by the Division of Early Childhood Education of Ghana Education Service, Headquarters, to carry out this study at the Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) centres under their authority.
Thanks, should also go to the ECCD directors and board members who took time off their busy schedules to take part in this study; I am deeply indebted to you all for participating in the interviews and providing all the valuable documents required for this study at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Matilda Aberese-Ako of the Institute of Health Research, at the University of Health and Allied Sciences (UHAS), where I work, for devoting her time to organise an NVivo tutorial for me, which made it easy for me to use the collaborative qualitative analysis software that allowed me to import, organise, explore, connect and collaborate on my data to reveal more significant insights from my qualitative data faster.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Mrs. Martine van der Walt Ehlers, Language Editor, MWE Language Services in South Africa for professionally editing my thesis.
Lastly, I would be remiss in not mentioning my family, especially my spouse and children. Their belief in me has kept my spirits and motivation high during this process.
iv ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to explore the management practices of directors at ECCD centres in Ghana. The study aimed to explore the application of basic management principles by ECCD directors at their centres to understand their perceptions of their managerial roles and the contextual factors that influence their management effectiveness and efficiency. The study used a qualitative approach underpinned by a multi-site case study design. The purposively selected case sites were located in five metropolitan and municipal districts within the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The population of the study included all ECCD directors in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. Sixteen ECCD directors and four board members were selected to participate in the study. Interviews and document reviews were the primary data collection instruments used.
Thematic analysis was used to analyse the interview data, while content analysis was used in reviewing the documents. Administrative Management Theory principles of Henri Fayol (planning, organising, coordinating and controlling) were identified from the data. Although evidence from the study showed that ECCD directors put much effort into managing their centres, the study also found that ECCD directors experience various challenges with applying basic management principles at their centres. The identified challenges included but were not limited to ECCD directors’ insufficient skills and knowledge in management principles;
insufficient technical support from the district education office; lack of active engagement of key internal and external ECCD stakeholders in the management process; and a lack of effective utilisation of enablers of effective and efficient management functions at the input, process, and output phases of management. Other challenges included inadequate utilisation of external planning inputs; lack of use of varied data sources for planning; inadequate mobilisation of resources; and a lack of support from the ECCD community/environment. In addressing the identified challenges, the researcher developed a contextual framework using a system theory approach in applying Fayol’s basic principles of management to guide ECCD directors in managing their centres.
Key Terms:
ECCD centre directors: management principles: management input: management process:
management output: management efficiency: effectiveness.
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
CEDU REC : College of Education Research Ethics Committee ECCD : Early Childhood Care and Development
ECCE : Early Childhood Care and Education GES : Ghana Education Service
IBE : International Bureau of Education
IICBA : International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa
KG : Kindergarten
OECD : Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PA : Parents’ Association
PTA : Parents Teachers Association
SISO : School Improvement Support Officer SMC : School Management Committee
SPIP : School Performance Improvement Plan
UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNICEF : United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
UNISA : University of South Africa
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF ACRONYMS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xv
CHAPTER ONE 1
ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY 1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1
1.2 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY 2
1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM 3
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 4
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 4
1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 5
1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 6
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS 7
1.10 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY 10
1.11 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER TWO 12
LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.1 INTRODUCTION 12
2.2 CONCEPTUALISING ECCD 12
2.2.1 Theoretical perspectives of ECCD 13
2.2.1.1 John Comenius’ model of ECCD 13
2.2.1.2 Fredrich Froebel’s model of ECCD 13
2.2.1.3 Maria Montessori’s philosophy of ECCD 14
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2.2.1.4 Early childhood care and development model in Ghana 14 2.2.1.5 National organisational structure of ECCD programme in Ghana 16 2.3 EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT (ECCD) IN THE
INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT 16
2.3.1 Historical development of ECCD in the international context 16 2.3.2 Current trends and issues of ECCD in international context 18
2.3.2.1 ECCD policy and governance 19
2.3.2.2 ECCD provision and funding 20
2.3.2.3 Access to ECCD services 21
2.3.2.4 ECCD Quality 22
2.3.2.5 In loco-parentis role of early childhood care and development centres 23
2.4 ECCD IN THE GHANAIAN CONTEXT 24
2.5 REVIEW OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY: CONCEPT,
PRINCIPLES, AND FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT 27
2.5.1 Concept of management 27
2.5.2 Principles of management 28
2.5.2.1 Division of work 28
2.5.2.2 Authority and responsibility 29
2.5.2.3 Discipline 29
2.5.2.4 Unity of command 29
2.5.2.5 Unity of direction 30
2.5.2.6 Subordination of individual interest 30
2.5.2.7 Remuneration 30
2.5.2.8 The degree of centralisation 31
2.5.2.9. Scalar chain 31
2.5.2.10 Order 31
2.5.2.11 Equity 31
2.5.2.12 Stability of tenure of personnel 32
2.5.2.13 Initiative 32
2.5.2.14 Esprit de corps 32
2.5.3 Functions of management 33
2.5.3.1 Planning 33
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2.5.3.2 Planning processes 34
2.5.3.3 Organising 35
2.5.3.4 Organising processes 36
2.5.3.5 Coordination 37
2.5.3.6 Coordination types and mechanisms 38
2.5.3.7 Leading/Directing 40
2.5.3.8 Staffing 41
2.5.3.9 Controlling 41
2.6. MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS OF ECCD DIRECTORS 44
2.6.1 ECCD directors’ planning functions 45
2.6.2 Domains of Quality Improvement Planning 50
2.6.2.1 Collective development of overall school improvement vision planning 50
2.6.2.2 Activities and progress measures planning 51
2.6.2.3 Context planning domain 53
2.6.2.4 Organisation planning domain 54
2.6.2.5 Resources planning domain 56
2.6.3 Organising functions of ECCD centre directors 57
2.6.4 Leading/directing functions of ECCD directors 59
2.6.5 Coordinating functions of ECCD directors 60
2.6.6 Controlling functions of ECCD directors 62
2.7 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 64
CHAPTER THREE 66
RESEARCH PARADIGM, APPROACH, DESIGN, AND
METHODOLOGY 66
3.1 INTRODUCTION 66
3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM 66
3.2.1 Ontological and epistemological assumptions 66
3.2.2 Analysis of various research paradigms 67
3.2.2.1 Constructivist paradigm 67
3.2.2.2 Positivist paradigm 67
3.2.2.3 Interpretivist paradigm 67
3.2.3 Ontological and epistemological foundations of the study 68
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3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH 69
3.3.1 Qualitative research approach 69
3.3.1.1 Advantages of a qualitative research approach 71
3.3.1.2 Disadvantages of a qualitative research approach 71
3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN 73
3.4.1 Rationale for using a case study design 73
3.4.2 Limitations of a case study design 75
3.5 POPULATION AND SAMPLING 76
3.5.1 Population 76
3.5.2 Sampling of sites 76
3.5.3 Purposeful sampling 78
3.5.3.1 Criteria for choosing purposeful sampling. 78
3.5.4 Sampling by case type 78
3.5.4.1 Sample size 79
3.5.4.2 Justification for selecting only directors and board members for the study 79
3.6 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 80
3.6.1 Interviews 81
3.6.1.1 Justification for using interviews 82
3.6.1.2 Limitations of interviews 83
3.6.2.1 Justification for using document analysis 84
3.6.2.2 Disadvantages of document analysis 84
3.7 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 86
3.8 TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE STUDY 86
3.8.1 Credibility 87
3.8.2 Transferability 88
3.8.3 Dependability 88
3.8.4 Confirmability 88
3.9 REFLEXIVITY 88
3.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 90
3.10.1 Informed consent 90
3.10.2 Confidentiality and anonymity 90
3.10.3 Harm and fairness 91
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3.11 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 91
CHAPTER FOUR 92
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS 92
4.1 Introduction 92
4.2 Directors’ biographical information 92
4.3. Management practices of ECCD centre directors 94
4.3.1. Planning practices of ECCD centre directors 96
4.3.1.1 Reviews of mission, vision, and guiding principles 96
4.3.1.2 Assessment of ECCD centre-community needs 99
4.3.1.3 Development of strategic goals, objectives and strategies 101
4.3.1.4 Formulating ECCD centre improvement plans 102
4.3.1.5 Planning for monitoring and evaluation of the improvement plan 105
4.3.2 Organising practices of ECCD centre directors 106
4.3.2.1 Providing instructional and administrative leadership 107 4.3.2.2 Establishing ECCD centre governance and management structures 109 4.3.2.3 Organising human, instructional material and financial resources 111
4.3.2.4 Developing ECCD centre policies 112
4.3.2.5 Assigning duties and responsibilities 114
4.3.2.6 Ensuring strong parent-community-ECCD centre ties 115 4.3.2.7 Organising professional development for staff 116 4.3.2.8 Providing appropriate ECCD learning environment 118
4.3.3 Coordination practices of ECCD centre directors 120
4.3.3.1 Coordinating through the use of ECCD centre routines 120 4.3.3.2 Coordinating by use of performance improvement plans and schedules 121 4.3.3.3 Coordinating through behavioural control and performance appraisal 123 4.3.3.4 Coordination through the use of reward systems 124
4.3.3.5 Coordination through communication networks 125
4.3.3.6 Coordination through a committee system of management 127
4.3.3.7 Coordination through leadership 128
4.3.3.8 Coordination through clearly defined aims and objectives 130 4.3.3.9 Coordination through simplified organisation and effective chain of command
131
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4.3.3.10 Coordinating through meetings and in-service training workshops 132 4.3.3.11 Coordination through harmonised ECCD programmes and policies 133
4.3.4 Controlling practices of ECCD centre directors 134
4.3.4.1 ECCD outcome control through performance improvement planning 134 4.3.4.2 Control of ECCD stakeholders’ behaviours and actions 136 4.3.4.3 Control by strategic ECCD staff recruitment, placement and continuing
professional development 138
4.3.4.4 Control by belief systems of ECCD centres 139
4.4 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 141
CHAPTER FIVE 142
DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS 142
5.1 INTRODUCTION 142
5.2 RESEARCH AIMS AND QUESTIONS 142
5.3 DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS 142
5.3.1 Theme 1: Planning practices of ECCD centre directors 142
5.3.2 Theme 2: Organising practices of ECCD directors 154
5.3.2 Theme 3: Coordination practices of ECCD centre directors 160 5.3.4 Theme 4: Controlling practices of ECCD centre directors 163
5.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY 171
5.4.1 ECCD stakeholders 175
5.4.2 Management inputs 175
5.4.3 Management process 176
5.4.3.1 ECCD management planning activities 176
5.4.3.2 Planning activities enabling factors 178
5.4.3.3 Organising activities 178
5.4.3.4 Organising enablers 181
5.4.3.5 Coordination activities 181
5.4.3.6 Coordinating enabling factors 184
5.4.3.7 Management controlling activities 184
5.4.3.8 Controlling enabling factors 186
5.4.4 Management outputs 187
5.4.5 Closing the quality feedback loop 188
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5.5 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER 188
CHAPTER SIX 189
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 189
6.1 INTRODUCTION 189
6.2 MY RESEARCH JOURNEY 189
6.3 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS 191
6.3.1 Theme 1: Planning practices of ECCD centre directors 192
6.3.1.1 Vision statement 193
6.3.1.2 Indication of process outcome for improvement priorities 193
6.3.1.3 Indication of performance indicators 193
6.3.1.4 Description of action steps 193
6.3.1.5 Involvement of stakeholders 194
6.3.1.6 Use of varied data sources for root cause analysis 194 6.3.1.7 Sequencing of priorities, process outcomes, and action steps 194 6.3.1.8 Indication of schedule/timeline of activities and events 194 6.3.1.9 Internal alignment of performance improvement targets 195
6.3.1.10 Indication of responsible persons 195
6.3.1.11 Identification of varied sources of support 195
6.3.2 Theme 2: Organising practices of ECCD centre directors 196
6.3.3 Theme 3: Coordination practices of directors 196
6.3.4 Theme 4: Controlling practices of ECCD centre directors 198 6.3.5 Appropriate framework for the management of ECCD centres 199
6.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 200
6.5 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 201
6.6 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 202
6.7 CONCLUSION 203
6.8 RECOMMENDATIONS 204
6.8.1 Recommendations for practitioners 204
6.8.2 Recommendations for policymakers 204
6.8.3 Recommendations for future research 205
6.8.4 Dissemination of the findings of the study 205
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REFERENCES 206
ANNEXURES 232
ANNEXURE A: ETHICAL CLEARANCE CERTIFICATE 232
ANNEXURE B: REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH AT
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CENTRES IN GREATER ACCRA REGION 234 ANNEXURE C: RE: PERMISSION TO CONDUCT AN ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN
ECCD CENTRES IN GREATER ACCRA REGION 235
ANNEXURE D: LETTER OF INFORMED CONSENT FOR DIRECTORS 236
ANNEXURE E: LETTER OF INFORMED CONSENT FOR BOARD MEMBERS 237
ANNEXURE F: CONSENT FORM 238
ANNEXURE G: REQUEST FOR A LIST OF REGISTERED EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION CENTRES IN GREATER ACCRA REGION 239
ANNEXURE H: INTERVIEW PROTOCOLS 240
ANNEXURE I: DOCUMENT ANALYSIS CHECKLIST 243
ANNEXURE J: EXAMPLE OF A TRANSCRIBED INTERVIEW WITH THE ECCD
DIRECTOR 244
ANNEXURE K: EXAMPLE OF A TRANSCRIBED INTERVIEW WITH THE ECCD
CENTRE BOARD MEMBER 257
ANNEXURE L: EXAMPLE OF ANALYSIS TABLE
ANALYSIS TABLE FOR PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PLAN 262
ANNEXURE M: TABLE OF ORGANISING THEMES AND BASIC THEMES FOR THE DIRECTORS’ MANAGEMENT PLANNING ACTIVITIES AT ECCD CENTRES 266
ANNEXURE N: PLAGIARISM REPORT 276
ANNEXURE O: DECLARATION OF LANGUAGE EDITING 277
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Samples and sample size 79
Table 4.1: Detailed profiling of participants in-depth interviews 93 Table 4.2: Research questions, major themes and sub-themes 95
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Management Functions ECCD Directors 45
Figure 3.1: Map of Greater Accra Region of Ghana and Districts 77 Figure 5.1: A Contextual framework for the management of early childhood centres in Ghana:
Adaptation of Fayol’s management process 174
1
CHAPTER ONE
ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
This study explores the application of basic management principles of directors at Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) centres. ECCD generally covers the provision of care and schooling for children from birth to the age of eight (UNESCO, 2019). Several changes have occurred in the last century, and one of these complex changes in the industry and the educational systems was in the area of management. Industry and business researchers have given prominence to management research, and as a result, several business management models have been developed and implemented to ensure quality, effectiveness, and efficiency (Allais, 2017).
Unfortunately, the early childhood education sector lagged in this regard (Araújo, Sampaio, Castro, Pinheiro, & Macedo, 2014; Ferdous, 2016; & Poudyal, 2013). There is widespread agreement among stakeholders and policy makers that ECCD centre directors are indispensable in bringing about sustainable quality ECCD centre management; as a result, they place great confidence in centre directors’ responsibilities (OECD, 2012). ECCD is a key determinant of the future success of children; hence the emphasis and shift towards the search for efficient 21st century ECCD centre management practices that go with directors’ immense responsibilities (Leithwood, Harris, & Strauss, 2011; Theisohn & Lopes, 2013).
New ECCD policy reform in Ghana has widened ECCD stakeholders’ involvement and increased service providers’ responsibilities, accountability, and professionalism (Adu-Gyamfi, Donkoh & Addo, 2016; Agih, 2015). Multi-actor involvement in the ECCD services provision in Ghana requires that ECCD centre directors must be equipped with professional school management skills. This will enable them to plan, organise, direct, coordinate, and control the centre's activities in line with the national policy guidelines (Adu-Gyamfi, Donkoh, & Addo, 2016; Agih, 2015). This study argues that the application of management principles is required to effectively manage ECCD centres due to the complexity surrounding early childhood education services provision. A preliminary literature review revealed that research on management practices in early childhood education had received less attention than higher education and secondary education (Babatunde, 2014). Therefore, this study aims to explore the
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application of basic management principles by directors at ECCD centres in Ghana to understand contextual factors that influence their management practices and the challenges they face. The data from the research will be utilised to develop a contextual framework for the management of ECCD centres in Ghana.
1.2 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY
This study sought to explore the management practices of directors of early childhood care and development centres (ECCD) in Ghana. It is important to conduct this research for the following reasons:
Effective management practices are essential for the success of ECCD centres (Apusigah, Osae
& Boamah, 2018). Directors are in charge of the day to day running of the centres, including child care, curriculum development, staff and financial management, community involvement, to mention a few (Asante, 2017). Knowing what the current management practices are will help to identify strengths and weaknesses in the management of the ECCD centres, leading to improved services for the children. With the rapid growth of the ECCD sector in Ghana, it is important to assess how the directors manage the centres to meet the increasing demand for early childhood learning and development.
In recent years, the Ghanaian government has invested heavily in early childhood education, with a number of policies and programmes in place to improve access to quality early childhood education and care services (Frimpong, 2019 & Ministry of Education, Ghana 2017). However, there is a lack of research on the management practices of ECCD centres in Ghana. This study aims to fill this gap in the literature by providing valuable insights into the practices and challenges faced by the directors of ECCD centres. The findings of this study can also be applied to developing countries that have similar circumstances to Ghana. Policy makers and educators in these developing countries can benefit from the knowledge gained from this study. Generally, this study will provide an evidence base on the management procedures of early childhood education centres in Ghana, which can be used by policy makers, government officials, and practitioners to improve the quality of early childhood education services in Ghana.
3 1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM
The management of early childhood care and development centres (ECCD) in Ghana is not well- developed, which can lead to a variety of issues. These include limited knowledge and skills, poor infrastructure and facilities, inadequate monitoring and evaluation, and poor outcomes (Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2015). These issues can have a long-lasting negative impact on the development of young children and their future opportunities. ECCD centres in Ghana are facing a number of management challenges, including a lack of qualified staff, financial and material constraints, inadequate infrastructure, educational material and resources, and basic amenities like proper play areas, healthy food, and sanitation (Tandoh & Amankwa, 2018).
Parents are a key part of early childhood education, but many centres in Ghana struggle to involve parents in their children’s growth and development. The reasons for this include a lack of awareness or understanding of early childhood education; cultural and socio-economic barriers;
inconsistent policies and regulations; inadequate monitoring and supervision; lack of controls, checks, and balances; and a lack of opportunities for professional development (Amponsah &
Brankem, 2019). There is an uneven distribution of quality early childhood education centres across the country, with many centres located in urban areas and many rural communities not having access to them. This exacerbates the existing educational and development disparities among children (Global Partnership for Education, 2020).
Despite the complexities that came with ECCD reforms, research on the application of management skills in ECCD is very rare compared to industry, higher education institutions and secondary schools (Jackline & John, 2014). Most private ECCD centre directors in Ghana do not have pre-service management training before assuming directorship positions. Since 2007 when ECCD became part of compulsory basic education, limited studies have been conducted to ascertain ECCD centre directors’ perceptions on the importance of applying management skills in their management process. There is a knowledge gap with regard to the application of management theories in ECCD. There is also a lack of studies on how management theories can be applied in ECCD settings.
There is no theoretically substantiated and practically used ECCD centre management model based on the Ghanaian context. Therefore, this research aims to develop an ECCD centre
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management model aimed at long-term benefits based on the quality of ECCD services provision in line with contextual factors of Ghana. Also, the proposed framework can assist centre directors in effectively applying management skills in line with Ghanaian contextual issues. Against this background, this study investigated the application of basic principles of management by directors at ECCD centres in Ghana and used the findings to develop a framework for the management of ECCD centre based on the Ghanaian context.
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study aimed at exploring the application of basic management principles by directors at ECCD centres. The specific objectives that this study sought to achieve were to:
i. Explore how ECCD centre directors apply management principles of planning in their centres;
ii. Identify how ECCD centre directors apply organisational principles in their centres;
iii. Explore how ECCD centre directors apply management principle of coordination with their internal and external stakeholders;
iv. Find out how directors maintain control in the ECCD centres;
v. Use data to develop a framework for the management of early childhood education centres in Ghana.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The main question that the study sought to address was:
How do ECCD centre directors in Ghana apply basic management principles in their management practices?
The sub-research questions are as follows:
i. How do the directors plan management activities at ECCD centres?
ii. How do the directors organise ECCD centre activities?
iii. How do the directors coordinate management activities with the centre’s internal and external stakeholders?
iv. How do the directors maintain control in the ECCD centre?
5 1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theory underpinning this research was Administrative Management Theory, one of the Classical Organisational Theories that deals with organisational efficiency and how to maximise management output. The study used this theory to examine the management processes, structure, and related issues of the selected ECCD centres.
Among the key proponents of Administrative Management Theory is Henri Fayol. Management executive functions of planning, organising, directing, coordinating, controlling, staffing and budgeting, as argued by Fayol (1949), constitute the main elements of Administrative Management Theory. The researcher adopted this theory to guide this current study because it focuses on the administration of the whole organisation. It also deals with the establishment of effective management structures and the main classical management functions expected of ECCD centre directors that ensure quality, effective and efficient ECCD services provision.
This theory was successfully used by Agih (2015), Jackline and John (2014), Maxwell, Shupikai, Kwaedza and Lilian (2014), Mohd (2014), Musingafi (2012), and Yazidu, Majiyd and Abdallah (2017) to carry out studies on the application of Classical Organisational Theory in school settings. Since ECCD is a school organisation, the researcher is confident in applying Administrative Management Theory under the Classical Organisational Theory to conduct the study successfully. Due to time and resource constraints, the researcher contextualised only the following four managerial functions at the ECCD settings: planning, organising, coordinating and controlling.
1.7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The current research was grounded in the social constructivist-interpretivist philosophy. A qualitative research approach was used with a case study design (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Yin, 2018). The population of the study was all the ECCD directors and board members in the metropolitan and municipal districts of the Greater Accra Region.
A purposive sampling technique was used to select Accra Metropolis, Tema Metropolis, Ga South, Ga Central, and Ga East Municipalities of the Greater Accra Region as the study sites.
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Participants for the study were also purposively selected. The sample for the study was contingent on cases of information richness. For this study, sixteen ECCD directors and four board members were purposively selected from sixteen ECCD centres. Accordingly, the total sample size for the study was (16 + 4) = 20 (See Table 3.1 in Chapter Three for details on sampling and sample size).
A qualitative method of data collection, analysis and interpretation was used. Telephone interviews and document analysis were the main data collection strategies. A Thematic analysis technique was used to analyse the interview data, and content analysis was used to analyse the documents collected (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Yin, 2018). The data from the study were used to develop a contextual framework for the management of ECCD centres in Ghana.
To ensure rigour and trustworthiness, the researcher used credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability criteria (Torrance, 2013). In addition, prior to the data collection phase of this study, the researcher applied for and received an ethical clearance certificate from the CEDU REC, UNISA, and ensured that every ethical principle was meticulously observed.
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The application of management principles in ECCD centres has not been given the needed attention compared to tertiary and secondary education in Ghana. This research afforded the opportunity to vividly explore how ECCD directors perceive the application of basic management principles at their centres in Ghana and its implications for pre-ECCD centre management skills education for effective and efficient delivery of quality ECCD services.
Researching ECCD centre management practices in Ghana provided insights that can help develop a contextual framework for the management of ECCD centres in Ghana. This study produced new knowledge by developing a framework for the management of ECCD centres thereby contributing to expanding the application of basic management principles from tertiary and secondary schools to ECCD level.
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This study is timely since management inefficiency is a critical challenge affecting the quality implementation of the new ECCD curriculum in Ghana. Therefore, the contextual framework for managing ECCD centres would serve as a management guide to ECCD directors in Ghana. The study also offered strong empirically-grounded evidence-based knowledge on ECCD centre management practices. The findings may also be useful to ECCD centre directors in terms of the knowledge, management skills and attitudes required of 21st-century ECCD centre directors for effective and efficient quality ECCD service delivery.
This study was expected to help the ECCD services providers with knowledge and skills on enablers of effective and efficient application of basic management principles in ECCD centres.
In addition, the research findings widened knowledge on how to improve the managerial skills of ECCD centre directors in their daily management of the centre activities. Further, the study has implications for practitioners, policy makers and researchers in achieving management effectiveness and efficiency and, ultimately, quality ECCD outcomes.
1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Early Childhood Care and Development Centre (ECCD centres): Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Centre is a facility that provides comprehensive and holistic services for young children in their early years of development. These centres aim to promote the overall well-being and healthy growth of children by providing opportunities for their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development. (Global Partnership for Education, n.d.). ECCD centres, as used in this research, refer to facilities used by public, private, non-governmental and/or religious organisations to provide early-grade education for children between 0 and 8 years.
Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD): Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) refers to a comprehensive approach that focuses on the holistic development of young children from birth to 8 years of age. It encompasses a range of programmes and services that support and promote the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development of young children (UNESCO, n.d.). ECCD, as used in this research, refers to the services of care and education provided to children aged zero and eight years to achieve children’s holistic development.
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Early Childhood Care and Development Director (ECCD Director): An Early Childhood Care and Development Director (ECCD Director) is a professional who oversees and manages programmes and services related to the care, education, and development of young children (National Association for the Education of Young Children, n.d.). They typically work in early childhood education centres, preschools, or childcare facilities. The ECCD Director is responsible for developing and implementing a comprehensive curriculum that addresses the developmental needs of young children. They also hire, train, and supervise teachers and staff, ensuring that they follow appropriate guidelines and standards. In this study, ECCD director refers to the head of the ECCD centre who is responsible for the daily management of the ECCD centre. In the Ghanaian context, they are interchangeably referred to as head teachers, proprietors, or directors, as the case may be at private or public ECCD centres. This study adopted “director” to mean the head of both private and public ECCD centres responsible for the daily management of the centres.
Managerial skills: Managerial skills are the skills, knowledge, or abilities that an individual has to perform managerial tasks effectively (Robbins, Coulter & DeCenzo, 2017). Managerial skills, as used in this study, refers to specialised technical knowledge in ECCD centre management, which centre directors should possess through education and training to prepare them to execute their management responsibilities effectively and efficiently.
Management principles: Management principles are the fundamental concepts and guidelines that guide the practice of effective management. These principles provide a framework for managers to make decisions, allocate resources, and guide their teams towards achieving organisational goals (Daft, 2018). In this study, management principles refer to the management strategies that enable efficient and effective performance of management functions of planning, organising, coordinating, and controlling.
Planning: Planning is the process of setting goals, defining objectives, determining strategies, and allocating resources to achieve organisational goals. It involves analysing the current situation, identifying opportunities and threats, and developing action plans to guide the organisation towards its desired future state (Robbins, Coulter & DeCenzo, 2017). Planning is used in this study to refer to ECCD centre management activity that involves comprehensive needs assessment of the ECCD centre to identify the root cause of poor performance; formulation
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of ECCD centres’ mission and vision; statement of centres’ values; development of centres’
policies and philosophy; identification of goals; statement of centres’ strategic objectives;
development of plan’s implementation strategies/action steps; and design of control mechanisms.
Organising: Organising refers to the process of arranging and structuring work and resources to achieve organisational goals effectively. It involves defining roles and responsibilities, creating relationships and communication channels, and allocating resources appropriately (Johnson &
Thompson, 2015). The term organising is used in this study to describe the management function of mobilising resources, defining activities, assigning tasks, and establishing structures and coordinating activities to accomplish ECCD targeted goals.
Coordinating: Coordinating refers to the process of harmonising and integrating the activities and efforts of individuals and departments within an organisation. Coordinating involves ensuring that all parts of the organisation are working together towards a common goal and that resources are allocated efficiently (Robbins, Coulter, DeCenzo & Woods, 2019). In this research, coordination means management functions that involve harmonisation of ECCD activities toward accomplishing set ECCD goals. Fundamentally, ECCD directors establish mechanisms such as communication systems and record keeping involving and connecting the activities of implementation action steps at their centres.
Controlling: Controlling involves monitoring and evaluating the performance of individuals, teams, and the overall organisation to ensure that goals and objectives are being accomplished effectively and efficiently (Gulshan, 2016). Management control refers to the management function of ensuring that plans are well implemented and guaranteeing that the organisation functions as planned. The term controlling is used in this study to refer to the management control function of ensuring that ECCD centres’ performance improvement plans are appropriately implemented by taking corrective action to prevent deviations.
Management theory: Management theory is the body of knowledge, ideas, and practices that shape how managers think and act. It gives managers the tools they need to analyse and resolve issues, make informed decisions, and guide their organisations (Robbins, Coulter & DeCenzo, 2017). In this study, management theory is used to refer to ideas, concepts, and principles that guide and inform ECCD directors to navigate the complexities of managing their centres effectively and efficiently.
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Management functions: Management functions are activities or tasks such as planning, organising, coordinating and controlling that managers perform to meet organisational objectives. (Daft, 2013). In this study management function is used to refer to the activities that ECCD directors perform in order to accomplish ECCD goals and objectives.
1.10 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY This study is presented as follows:
Chapter One presents the background to the study, rationale and general orientation to the study, the purpose and objectives, the research problem, research questions, brief of research methodology, the significance of the research, and the definition of key terminologies.
Chapter Two reviews conceptual, theoretical, and empirical literature associated with the research topic. This is to gain a detailed understanding of the concept of ECCD and management.
The literature review covers theoretical perspectives of ECCD, management concepts, management principles and functions, and ECCD centre structure and management practices.
Chapter Three deals with the detailed description of the study's philosophical underpinning, qualitative approach, case study design, population, sample and sample size, data collection, analysis and interpretation strategies. In addition, the chapter considered ethical matters and the criteria to enhance the rigour and soundness of the study.
The research findings are presented in Chapter Four.
Chapter Five elaborates on the interpretation and discussion of the research findings compared to the literature. New knowledge and insights are presented in this chapter. A contextual framework for the management of ECCD centres in Ghana was developed from the finding of this study and showcased in this chapter.
In Chapter Six, the researcher summarises the key findings, draws conclusions and makes recommendations from the study.
11 1.11 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
This chapter provided a general introduction to the research. Specifically, it discusses the background to the research, the research problem and the research gap. The chapter also covered the purpose of the research, the research questions the study sought to address and the significance of the study. The chapter also discussed, in brief, the research methodology and explanation of main terminology. The structure of the study is also included. The next chapter covers the review of relevant and related theoretical and empirical literature on management and ECCD practices. Chapter Two also focuses on a detailed literature review of the theoretical framework supporting the study.
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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter presented an orientation to the research. The chapter specifically discussed the background and rationale, research problem, purpose and specific objectives, research questions, theoretical framework, a summary of research methodology, significance of the research, explanation of terminologies, and how the thesis was organised.
Chapter Two expounds on concepts of management practices of directors of ECCD centres and examines existing literature on management practices, with particular emphasis on applying basic management principles by directors of ECCD centres. This study aims to explore directors' management practices at ECCD centres. The chapter reviews relevant ECCD and management literature relevant to this research. The literature review covers the following thematic areas:
conceptualising ECCD, ECCD in an international context, the historical development of ECCD in an international context,current trends and issues of ECCD in an international context, ECCD in the Ghanaian context, and a review of the theoretical framework of the study focusing on the concept, principles, and functions of management. The chapter concludes with a review of previous studies on the management functions of ECCD directors and the identification of gaps in the literature.
2.2 CONCEPTUALISING ECCD
UNESCO (2019) defines ECCD as the provision of services of education and caring for children from birth to the age of eight, while Naudeau, Kataoka, Valerio, Neuman and Elder (2011) define ECCD as the rendering of mandatory services of education and caring for young people. Besides ensuring holistic child development, ECCD services allow parents to be employed (OECD, 2016). The European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2019) refers to ECCD as care and education services provided for about one hundred and twenty minutes a day and about one hundred days per year. ECCD also refers to the physical, cognitive, linguistic, and socio- emotional development of young people from birth to eight years, with the idea that an effective
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move from pre-primary level to primary level is contingent on how children are educated at pre- school level to be ready for primary education (World Bank, 2013).
2.2.1 Theoretical perspectives of ECCD
The contribution of scholars in delineating the scope, purpose and nature of ECCD is presented in the following paragraphs.
2.2.1.1 John Comenius’ model of ECCD
An advocate of ECCD, John Comenius, contended that children need to be holistically prepared as early care and education positively affect children in their later years of life (Norlin, 2020).
Comenius further observed that using an age-appropriate curriculum is integral to early education as it facilitates holistic child development. For instance, Comenius popularised using an age- appropriate learning approach in ECCD settings (Lukaš & Munjiza, 2014). Literature revealed that ensuring age-appropriate ECCD is still relevant today and of interest to this study because it is the responsibility of ECCD directors to ensure that appropriate teaching methods are used at the centres.
2.2.1.2 Fredrich Froebel’s model of ECCD
Fredirch Froebel views pre-school education as something mid-way between ECCD centres and home. Froebel argues that ECCD centres allow the development of children and shelter them from external impacts. Froebel describes this idea as a garden with plants (Murray, 2018). Elfer, Greenfield, Robson, Wilson and Zachariou (2018) argued the need to recruit ECCD experts as a critical ECCD input resource with the aim of quality ECCD services provision, which is referred to as quality ECCD output. Elfer et al. (2018) maintained that providing trained ECCD personnel and parents at home are critical resources that can ensure age-appropriate ECCD service provision at ECCD settings and at home due to their knowledge and skills acquired in ECCD.
From the literature, the authors acknowledged the importance of trained ECCD personnel and the role of parents in training children at home to complement each other in holistic development of children. Froebel (2018) proposes using gifts and play in early education that mothers facilitate at home to stimulate the child's physical development. In this case, the role of ECCD director as
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the key enabler of recruiting qualified staff and ensuring parental engagement in ECCD services provision are relevant areas of interest for this study.
2.2.1.3 Maria Montessori’s philosophy of ECCD
There are two main ideas Giardiello (2013) identifies in Maria Montessori’s philosophy of ECCD. First, learners interact freely with their environment through which they understand who they are. The Montessori Philosophy discourages using inappropriate chairs and tables that limit the movement of the children. The philosophy also encourages activities that enable children to frequently use their fine motor muscles, which is achievable through toys, play materials, and equipment (Walkington & Bernacki, 2020). Dehnad, Afsharian, Hosseini, Arabshahi, and Bigdeli (2014) further argue that the Montessori Philosophy offers strategies for ensuring children learn in a prepared environment that can facilitate movement and activity. Supporting the above researchers, Casquejo (2016) also recommends learning materials appropriate for ECCD centres’ indoor and outdoor learning environments. The literature revealed the role of the ECCD director in ensuring the provision of an appropriate learning environment as one of the management functions to facilitate the child's holistic development. Accordingly, this study acknowledges the Montessori Philosophy's relevance in providing quality ECCD. It is, therefore, worthwhile for this study to explore further how ECCD directors ensure rich ECCD-prepared learning environments in Ghanaian ECCD centres.
2.2.1.4 Early childhood care and development model in Ghana
The ECCD model in Ghana is a comprehensive approach to providing care and development for young children aged between birth and 8 years. It encompasses several components, including early childhood education, health and nutrition, parental education, and community involvement (Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2020). The primary objective of early childhood education is to ensure the provision of quality education to children between the ages of 3 and 5. This is achieved through the establishment of community-based centres, as well as the implementation of teacher and caretaker training to facilitate the implementation of early childhood activities. Furthermore, immunisation, periodic health checks, and the provision of nutritious meals are essential components of early childhood education. Furthermore, breastfeeding and the promotion of good hygiene are also part of the curriculum. Finally, parent education is provided to assist parents in
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raising their children in a wholesome manner, while governance and supervision ensure the involvement of the local community.
The Ghanaian ECCD model is dedicated to safeguarding the rights and well-being of young children. It emphasises the prevention and response to cases of child abuse, neglect, and exploitation, with caregivers and teachers being educated in child protection techniques.
Additionally, community-based Child Protection Committees are supposed to be established to raise awareness of and address child protection issues. The model also emphasises the importance of play and learning, with toys, books, and educational resources being used to encourage exploration, creativity, and learning. Monitoring and evaluation are also included in the model, with data collection on children's development, evaluation of the quality of early childhood centres, and continual improvement and capacity building to ensure the best possible outcomes.
Ultimately, the Ghanaian ECCD model seeks to bridge the gap between early childhood development and primary education in Ghana, providing all young children with a quality care and development experience that will lay the foundation for their future success (Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2019).
ECCD in Ghana is a holistic approach to early childhood care, focusing on the five dimensions of children's development: physical, cognitive, emotional, and social. It supports holistic programmes, play-based learning, and inclusion to create a diverse and positive environment for all children, ensuring their right to survive, protect, develop, and participate. ECCD in Ghana prioritises cultural relevance and community involvement in children's development. It acknowledges the rich traditions and customs of Ghana's ethnic communities and adapts programmes to their specific needs. ECCD adheres to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) principles, ensuring child rights and protection. It aims to raise children into well-rounded individuals, confident, curious, and passionate about learning, preparing them for a lifetime of growth and development.(Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2019).
It can be concluded from the foregoing discussion that Ghana's ECCD model is a synthesis of the principles developed by Maria Montessori, the principles developed by Frederich Froebel, and the principles developed by John Comenius.
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2.2.1.5 National organisational structure of ECCD programme in Ghana
The national organisational structure for the ECCD programme is designed to ensure a coordinated and holistic approach to early childhood development in Ghana. It involves collaboration between multiple government agencies, educational institutions, and community stakeholders to promote access, quality, and equity in ECCD services. In Ghana, ECCD programme is overseen by the Ministry of Education. The national organisational structure for the ECCD programme in Ghana includes the following key entities: Ministry of Education, Ghana Education Service, Early Childhood Education Unit, National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, Regional Education Directorates, District Education Directorates, and Early Childhood Care and Development Centres (Ministry of Education, n.d.). The Ministry of Education formulates policies, strategies, and guidelines for ECCD, while Ghana Education Service manages curriculum development, teacher training, and monitoring of centres. The Early Childhood Education Unit focuses on quality early childhood education services, while National Council for Curriculum and Assessment develops and reviews curricula for all levels of education (Ministry of Education, n.d.).
The following section presents a review of the literature on the development of ECCD in the international context.
2.3 EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT (ECCD) IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT
2.3.1 Historical development of ECCD in the international context
This section reviews literature on ECCD in the international context to paint the current image of ECCD globally. UNESCO (2015) stated that historically, the concept of ECCD assumed an international dimension in the mid-19th century, particularly in America and Europe. Initially, the ECCD programme was used to protect and provide care to neglected children of poor working mothers. Following World War II, the number of women working in formal employment rose significantly, leading to a high demand for improved and inexpensive care for their wards, and this phenomenon began to shape ECCD policies and programmes globally (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2019).
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In Europe, North America, Asia and some Sub-Saharan Africa countries, kindergartens and nurseries were established using models of Froebel, Pestalozzi, and Montessori (Chandra, 2017;
Puyana, 2013). Milotay (2016) indicated that before 1960, ECCD services were not a legal entitlement to children and their parents, while the aim of ECCD policies and programmes was blurred, and research on ECCD was very scanty. The European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2019) asserted that ECCD witnessed a significant global development in the 1960s when colonialism came to an end in Africa, leading to the creation of more self-governing countries and a remarkable increase in the number of women working in formal employment. This has led to the development of ECCD national policies, programmes, and guidelines worldwide, especially in developed countries (UNESCO-IICBA, 2010).
A global picture of ECCD emerged fully in 1961 when UNESCO conducted an international survey with responses from 65 countries from Europe, North America, Africa and Asia (UNESCO-IICBA, 2010). The survey found that public and private providers provided ECCD services in many countries and that the ECCD curriculum at that time covered both education and childcare services for young children of working mothers (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2019).
Though the survey results acknowledged the significance of ECCD services, the services were limited in supply coupled with poor quality and regional diversity. The main cross-national variations in ECCD programmes included confusion regarding the locus of policy-making authority at various levels of implementation. It also included whether administrative auspices of the ECCD programme should fall under education, health, social welfare, or a combination.
There was variation regarding the appropriate age group to serve (preschoolers, infants and toddlers), as well as entitlement identification and selection procedures to identify needy and disadvantaged children. Furthermore, there was also variation regarding issues of admission and the proportion of the cohort of children to be included, while standardised assessment criteria to be adopted varied across the regions. Other aspects of regional variations included funding strategies (funding by faith-based organisations, private individuals, public funding, or a mixed funding approach). Another significant variation was the mode of service delivery, the nature of care services for specific age groups, types of ECCD facilities, and the programme’s
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philosophical underpinnings. The survey also revealed a lack of sufficient studies on ECCD centres and how they influence the development of the children (Nafsika & Ulrike, 2020).
1972 marked a significant turning point in the global development of ECCD when UNESCO took the important step of including early childhood education in their 1971/1972 budget for the first time. The objective of the 1972 UNESCO budget was to offer financial assistance to members to implement emerging ECCD policies and programmes. UNESCO’s funding support for ECCD in member countries was targeted at data collection, and this marked the beginning of collaborative studies on ECCD by UNICEF and UNESCO (UNESCO, 2018; Council of the European Union, 2019). From 1974 to 1990, there was an increase from 67 to 88 countries in international participation by different stakeholders in ECCD surveys (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014; Hultman & Margrain, 2019). At the World Conference on Education for All, participants agreed that ECCD services are the right of every child, hence adopting the third Medium Term Plan (1990-1995) (Tikly, 2017).
Despite ECCD services' significant role in society, studies on the management practices of ECCD centre directors are rare. The following section reviews literature on current ECCD policies and programmes in the international context.
2.3.2 Current trends and issues of ECCD in international context
A review of international studies on ECCD systems revealed vast differences among countries due to unique cultural, social, economic and political contexts (Education International, 2010).
International studies on ECCD by Jensen (2017), OECD (2017), and UNESCO (2015) found that even though successes were recorded in some countries, access issues, high numbers of untrained caregivers and teachers, poor working conditions for personnel, poor governance structures, and a lack of quality ECCD services were the main challenges confronting the ECCD sub-sector globally. Some of these issues will be reviewed in detail in the following sections.
19 2.3.2.1 ECCD policy and governance
This section reviews literature on ECCD policy and governance. Studies show that effective ECCD service provision requires well-coordinated structures to be led by the sector ministry to provide links amongst ECCD stakeholders providing related ECCD services in the areas of health, nutrition, and special education (OECD, 2015).
Findings from international studies by Education Studies (2010), OECD (2017), and UNESCO (2015) showed remarkable differences in ECCD policies and the governance systems among countries, which were attributed to different approaches to ECCD, such as the provision of a blend of care, education, and development as a single service versus as different or distinct services (Education International, 2010; OECD, 2015; UNESCO, 2017). For example, in Canada, a specific regulatory body coordinates ECCD policies for children under five years.
Meanwhile, services for children five years and older are coordinated by another regulatory body.
In Denmark and Norway, ECCD programmes are integrated with the social welfare system. Also, in Denmark, municipalities are responsible for ECCD provision, whereas in Norway and New Zealand, the Ministry of Education is responsible for ECCD provision, and ECCD is an integral part of national education. Thus, ECCD forms an integral part of the national education structure in these countries (Education International, 2010).
Findings from international studies also revealed that in some countries such as Ghana, Hungary, and Portugal ECCD provision for children under three years old is placed under different agency such as department of social welfare and ECCD services for children from four years old and upwards are integrated into the more developed basic education system under the control of those countries’ Ministries of Education (Marope & Kaga, 2017; Nafsika & Ulrike, 2020; UNESCO, 2018).
Education International (2010), UNESCO (2017), and Zilma and Ramos (2018) and stated that ECCD forms part of compulsory primary education in countries such as Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela and Hungary, and ECCD policies, service provision and teacher education are under the purview of municipalities. On the other hand, Gananathan (2011) and OECD (2014) reported
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that in western countries like the USA, and Mexico, various agencies are responsible for providing various components of the ECCD services.
In Ghana, ECCD services for newborn to three-year-old children are not part of the public basic education structure, whereas services for four- and five-year-olds are integrated into the basic education system. Consequently, multiple ministries are involved in ECCD governance, supervision, and monitoring (Asare-Danso, 2014; Ministry of Education, 2018).
The above findings suggest that though variations exist in ECCD policy governance in various countries, there have been gradual attempts to decentralise ECCD provision to local government authorities in the past years in some countries, including Ghana. ECCD policies and governance structures are relevant to this current study because they form part of the contextual factors influencing ECCD centre directors’ management practices.
2.3.2.2 ECCD provision and funding
Findings from international studies conducted by Education International (2010) OECD (2017), UNESCO (2015), and Zilma and Ramos (2018) reported that in most countries where ECCD services for newborns to three-year-olds are not integrated into the national compulsory education system, private individuals, local communities, faith-based organisations, and non- governmental organisations tend to be the main service providers. On the other hand, governments seem to be the main providers of ECCD services for children over three years old, particularly in the case of developing countries like Ghana, Nepal and Nigeria (OECD, 2017;
Yoshikawa & Kabay, 2015). Furthermore, UNICEF (2018) found that in some countries, local communities, NGOs, parents, and some international agencies such as UNICEF, the European Union, and UNESCO share ECCD funding responsibility because government funding for public ECCD centres is inadequate. For example, in Ghana and other developing countries, parents who opted for private ECCD provision bear the cost of ECCD services, including tuition and care (OECD, 2017).
In developed countries such as Denmark and Norway, where government agencies are largely involved in ECCD programmes, municipalities are responsible for ECCD policy implementation
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through the funding of staff development and grants per child (Nafsika & Ulrike, 2020; Wolf et al., 2018; World Bank, 2016).
In Ghana, the government, through local government authorities such as district assemblies, provides financial support through a Capitation Grant awarded using a per-child formula for basic education, where ECCD forms an integral part. The precondition for the award of the Capitation Grant is the centres’ ability to prepare performance improvement plans using specific targets the fund will support. The attempts by the Ghanaian government to fund public ECCD provision is a step in the right direction since adequate funding is a prerequisite for quality ECCD service provision. It is evident from the literature that there has been a substantial increase in government funding for ECCD over the years.
ECCD funding is pertinent to this research because quality ECCD centre management largely depends on adequate funding. However, from the review of previous literature, several questions regarding ECCD programme funding and ECCD centre directors’ management practices remain to be addressed. For example, how often do ECCD centres receive government grants? How does funding affect ECCD centre director’s management practices? How do ECCD centre directors mobilise financial resources from the ECCD community to supplement government funding?
2.3.2.3 Access to ECCD services
A study conducted by Yoshikawa and Kabay (2015) revealed limited access (around 8 per cent) to ECCD services in rural settings of most developing countries, whereas in urban settings, ECCD access is around 60 per cent. Similarly, UNESCO (2015) reported that access to ECCD services in urban areas is higher than in rural areas. UNESCO further reported that higher fees charged by private ECCD providers also accounted for limited access to ECCD services in developing countries. In addition, previous studies on ECCD access in developing countries revealed that children with disadvantaged backgrounds are mostly excluded due to parents’
inability to afford the fees (OECD, 2017a; UNESCO, 2012; Yoshikawa & Kabay, 2015).
A closer look at literature on ECCD access reveals several gaps and shortcomings. First, although previous studies illuminated issues of access to ECCD services in developing countries, no study
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has examined how ECCD centre directors’ management practices in Ghana influence ECCD access in Ghana. In addition, studies to explore specific ECCD centre management structures that support access to ECCD services for children with special needs and those from low-income families are yet to be conducted in Ghanaian ECCD settings. There is, therefore, a need to explore the link between ECCD centre management structures and access to ECCD service in the Ghanaian context.
2.3.2.4 ECCD Quality
An international study by Education International (2010) revealed variations in ECCD service provision among various countries. For example, in some countries, the national planning of ECCD programmes reflects the quality thereof. However, the study reported that in most countries, inclusivity strategies are mostly lacking in national ECCD plans (Education International, 2010). Other studies revealed that inadequate ECCD resources, unqualified personnel, and low staff compensation schemes impede quality ECCD services provision in most developing countries(World Bank, 2016).
UNICEF (2018) outlined the following indicators of ECCD quality that are lacking in most of the ECCD settings: ECCD standards to safeguard children’s rights; leave for parents with at least half salary; a national ECCD plan with the necessary attention to disadvantaged children;
subsidised ECCD services for low-income families; adequately trained ECCD staff; acceptable staff to child ratio; and universal access to health services. UNESCO (2017) stated that child- caregiver ratios are essential indicators of the quality of ECCD programmes, as the ratios indicate whether children receive adequate care and education.
In Ghana, the issue of lack of resources for ECCD services, poor infrastructure, a lack of trained ECCD personnel, and the low level of salary for staff are still in existence in both public and private ECCD centres, and these have been affecting the quality of ECCD service provision (World Bank, 2016).
The literature review shows that quality ECCD services are needed to achieve holistic child development, which is far from achieved in most developing countries. Studies on how directors’
