Geographically, the paper focuses on what will be called the Eastern Seaboard (ES): KwaZulu, Transkei and Ciskei, as these areas have a common history and share many cultures. He does not accept the orientation of the IICN. Second, land ownership ~ as not transferable inter vivos even though the use of land was transferable in the form of the common practice of communal cultivation. After the occupation by settlers during the nineteenth century, this system was preserved in most parts of ES.
Cecil John Rhodes, as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony, introduced the Glen Gray Act in 1894, which made it easier to introduce individual land ownership. The "municipal" system retained most of the features of the pre-colonial system, but came under increasing state regulation. Hence the struggle of the Pondoland chiefs against the introduction of an indifferent tenure which threatened their authority.
First, one might expect higher productivity in "qui,trent" areas because (a) a land market in "trent" areas would allow less efficient farmers to sell more efficiently; and (b) "laid off" holdings could be better protected from manager humiliation and thus lead to higher levels of investment. The Tomlinson Commission of 1955, appointed to make recommendations to the government on the "socio-economic development" of the "Bantu"ateas; calculated average yields on African farms as lb" sacks" of "maize" per hectare, those on farms, which are owned by whites, but like sacks~ Given the small size of black farms, most families could not provide for their subsistence needs, which necessitated migration.
RURA~ INCOME COMPOSITION
However, the creation of an African peasantry was not seriously attempted and expenditure on creating employment around the reserves was not undertaken on the scale of Tomlinson's recommendations. The percentage breakdown refers to the average cash income figure, except for Ardington, which refers to the average:---. The figure of 25% under "Local works/household enterprise" includes a very small amount of profit from the sale of livestock and vegetables, but the breakdown was not available.
Detailed breakdowns from these writers show that at the bottom of the income distribution there are a significant number of families who have access to cash transfers or pensions, or both. Given the low levels of inputs typical of reserve agriculture, returns from maize cultivation are very low compared to formal sector jobs; in some cases, due to soil depletion and poor rainfall, they are even lower than yields from non-skied courses. Jobs in the informal sector in rural areas. Cultivating 1 hectare required about 360 hours, yielding a return of RO.09 per hour - about 13% of the average African urban wage, which was R121/month in 1977.
Of course, this is not the whole story because of the complementarity of agricultural activities: between periods of peak labor demand in corn farming, attention can be paid to 1 i vestot:l( and informal sector activities. Women in most low Roza can weed half a day on state farms run by the Transkei Agricultural Corporation.
EFFECTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF FREEHOLD
Incentives: In the 1970s, incentives to engage in agriculture declined rapidly relative to those created by migration. However, due to the limitations described above, they may be more effective in the long term in eliminating Lip laxity on machined surfaces. Even if it is not more efficient, it should primarily be merely the addition of an additional element of flexibility in the form of a land ownership market.
However, modest increases in consumption can be observed in the long term if breeding was introduced. In the absence of reliable marketing channels, the incentives to spread fertilizer and invest in irrigation etc. are reduced. This limits the number of potential buyers. iii) The transfer costs are high compared to those on the market for e.g. shares or machinery, as surveying may require a search in the cadastre.
In the first half of the twentieth century, in Pisticci, southern Italy, 36% of all land was acquired by gift and marriage contract, 23X by inheritance, and only 21X by purchase (Davis, 1973). Thus, the American land market is most active in this small sample, whereas in the underprivileged South African colored community, the land market is almost non-existent. In terms of cheaper methods of surveying (which free marketers crave), the current system of chain measures in unsurveyed areas could be considered adequate.
Five of the thirteen villages studied in the Amatola Basin were completely inaccessible to tractors (Bekker and de Wet, 1982). In the case of the Swazi Development Bank cited above, Mercey argues that the deciding factor in the smallholder's reasonable repayment record was/was not the threat of repossession. It seems that the main cause of the lack of a thriving credit market is to be found in the general stagnation evident in the rural areas of ES and not in the truncated land market.
Colonial officials working on African land legislation in Kenya in the 1950s and in South Africa in the 1930s (Native Economic Commission) were haunted by the specter of India's debt-ridden peasantry. This was apparently not because of what the chiefs might do contrary to the law, but because of the legal provisions contained in the terms of office themselves. The report had significant influence in undermining official confidence in the merits of individual terms for Africans.
However, land appropriation does not appear to have been a significant problem when "quitrent" was first introduced in the late nineteenth century. A common complaint in the literature is that land registration redistributes resources from women to men. Once title is granted, I can register in the name of husband and wife as a partnership.
Meanwhile, it would be unwise to recommend the retention of the clrrent system on the sole grounds that it provides access to land for the poor.
CONCLUSION
The desire of urban dwellers for land for retirement and recreation can price the poor out of the market, as Collier and Lal (1980) noted is happening in Kenya. However, it will be impossible to collect in ES due to the extreme inefficiency of the government and because the government is controlled by townspeople who will look after their own interests first. On the other hand, if the demand for rural land is high and increasing, we may suspect that the bribes demanded by chieftains will rise accordingly - and so freehold will not price the poor out of the market any more than the present arrangement does .
With this background in mind, the effects of the introduction of motorways were sought to be assessed. However, it does not automatically follow that the allocation of highways would result in the establishment of high-input, high-yield agriculture. The experience of other African countries has shown that there is a large selection of assets that can fulfill the function of collateral, not least good financial sense on the part of the loan agency.
Its social effects are also difficult to determine in advance, but one most likely effect is the erosion of security for rural women unless careful steps are taken to prevent this. In any case, such a move would have to count on stiff resistance from the chiefs, because also in Lesotho the group interests of the chiefs help to maintain the "common" office system. C Board, “The Rehabi 1 i tati on Program in the Bantu Areas and Its Impact on the Cultural Practices.
Adl/linistrative II/Iplications of the Republic of Transkei (Univerza v Pretorii' D. Admin. teza, 1981)·. MC de Vos, "An Investigation of African Tenure in the Cape Province, and a Recommendation for 'Issued of Simplified Title Deeds", Report on Native Location Surveys (UG 42, 1922). CJ de Wet in PA McAllister, "Rural Communities in Transition: A Study of the Soc"i0-Economic and Agricultural Implications of Agricultural Betterment and Development, Institute for Social and Economic Research Horking Paper 16.
S Granger, The Social, Political and, Econoaic Influences on Land Tenure in the Transkei (University of Cape Town B.Survey dissertation, 1978). Findings and Recommendations in the Tomlinson Co-Ission Report (Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations, 1956). Northfield I~qUiry, "Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Acquisition and Use of Agricultural Land" (HMSO, 1979).
FR Tomlinson, Commission for the Socio-Economic Development of Bantu Areas within the Union of South Africa (1955). FR Tomlinson, "Summary of the Report of the Commission on the Socio-Economic Development of the Bantu Areas within the Union of South Africa" (UG 61/1955).
