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THE IMPACT OF 100% RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR HOUSEHOLD DEMANDS OVER FOSSIL- FUELED BASED ELECTRICITY: A REVIEW
J. Mbizaand V.T. Hashe
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Technology University of Johannesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT
Strategies to alleviate poverty often seem to stand in opposition to environmental and social sustainability, particularly in the realm of energy provision. The challenge of reforming entire economies is immense; even more so if a country is a fossil fuel-based and emissions-intensive as South Africa. In an increasingly carbon-restricted environment and already facing climate change impact, however, South Africa must rapidly and decisively reduce the intensity of greenhouse gas emissions. The main aim of this paper was too assess the use of renewable energy in the household sector and more specially for an isolated home by providing 100% of the needed energy from renewables. Wind energy, photovoltaic, biofuel, and batteries are the renewable that will be evaluated. The end goal is to find suitable technologies that can solve the challenges of shortage of energy experienced in South Africa.
[153]-2 1 INTRODUCTION
Strategies to alleviate poverty often seem to stand in opposition to environmental and social sustainability, particularly in the field of energy provision [1] . The challenge of reforming entire economy is immense even more so if a country is fossil fuel-based and emissions-intensive as South Africa. Climate change is already causing significant impact in South Africa (SA). To avoid this, the country must urgently reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. The electricity sector in SA is a critical part of economy and, at the sometime, contribution much to the issue of pollution. Figure 1 presents an example from one of the coal fired power stations available in SA where large amounts of smoke is allowed into the atmosphere.
Figure 1: Power Station Plant that generate electricity while causing air pollution [2]
SA is in southernmost nation on the African continent, with latitude between 22° and 35° S and longitude between 17° and 33° E as presented in fig. 2 [3].
Figure 2: Republic of South African Map [3]
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There are a significant number of coal reserves in SA; most of the recognized coal reserves are located in Mpumalanga, Free State, and Gauteng and Northwestern province of Limpopo. SA has historically been dependent on fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas. Eskom, the state-owned utility of South Africa, has been the sole primary producer of 95% of its electricity in South Africa and 45% in Africa currently generating up to 37, 868 MW of the country’s output from its coal-fired power plants [4-6].
Eskom is an acronym for Electricity Supply Commission which was founded by the South African government in 1923 [7].
Although the national utility Eskom, high levels of household coal use, especially in areas close to coalmines and areas experiencing cold winter, uses the majority of coal in electricity generation are prevalent. The worst incidents of poor air quality in South Africa occur with the burning of wood, dung, or coal and multiple fuel consumers have millions of low-income homes, prioritizing other energy sources such as paraffin, wood, and coal over electricity, resulting in related problems such as air pollution, respiratory disease, and shack fires [8]. When these fuels are used in poorly ventilated households, particularly in informal settlements and rural villages, this situation is particularly problematic. However, despite households having access to electricity, it is recognized that coal it’s still used continually.
Research has shown that electrified low-income households continue to use a range of fuels because electricity is found to be less cost-effective (Department of Minerals and Energy, 1998)’. However, it is not just the low cost of fuel that makes coal appealing to households with low incomes. Coal simultaneously provides thermal energy for space heating and cooking, killing two birds with one stone, so to say, one fuel and one appliance provide energy for two end-uses. It is because of this dual utility that other energy forms find it difficult to compete with coal [9]. However, energy access is not the only concern; energy supply should also be sustainable, avoiding emissions, noise, high fuel costs and supply insecurities. This call for sustainable energy access for development is further underlined by the declaration of the decade 2014 – 2024 as the decade of Sustainable Energy for All by the United Nations General Assembly [10].
The initiative promotes renewable energy sources as a key technology to reach the energy poor, providing clean electricity, heating, cooking and lighting solutions to people and communities that currently rely on conventional energy sources and/or costly fossil fuels. Renewable energy technologies are regarded as especially suitable because they can provide small-scale solution and decentralized energy supply that meet the needs of the population. The cost reduction over the last decade have rendered renewable energies more economically efficient in comparison to conventional fuels [11, 12].
Nevertheless, these technologies still face a range of social, economic and structural challenges, requiring not only further technological development but also a deeper understanding of both the success factors and the barriers to accomplish widespread dissemination. A study by Bhattacharyya [13]
on financing energy access and off-grid electrification, showed that despite recent progress and the support of the international community only limited funding is available for small-scale community projects, most funds are allocated to larger energy generation projects that barely address the energy needs of the poor. Yet small-scale projects can play a key role in supporting the transition towards more sustainable energy systems [10].
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2 ENERGY CONSUMPTION PER HOUSEHOLD IN SA - AVERAGE
South Africa’s access to energy, as well as access to other basic services such as shelter, education, and water, is associated with a high level of poverty and socio-economic disparity. Until 1994, approximately one-third of the population was connected to the grid [14]. During the transition to democracy, access to affordable electricity became ‘a basic need and basic right’ with high political and cultural significance and central to the post-apartheid government’s Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) [15]. Consequently, low-income households have typically aspired to a grid connection rather than off- grid alternatives such as solar homes system solar water heaters [1]. The state's free basic electricity (FBE) allowance, introduced in 2004 to provide 'electricity to all' through the provision of 50 KWh per month of free electricity to low-income households, is one measure to address electricity access and affordability, for basic lighting, media access, and water heating, such an amount is considered adequate, but critics charge it is inadequate for basic household needs, even as a result of the degradation of infrastructure and service quality [4]. Meanwhile, after the country's electricity, tariffs began to grow, illegal electricity connections in townships and informal settlements have increased. Illegal links, for which households sometimes pay an agent to circumvent the meters of the municipality or Eskom, have resulted in live cable electrocutions and have led to unplanned power outages [14].
After intensive research by scientists to find alternatives, renewable energy has emerged. These technologies include hydro, wind, wave, tidal, geothermal, biomass, biofuel, and solar energy. Due to the dependence on nature, most renewable sources cannot be used as a baseload for energy supply.
However, introducing these sources would help ease the pressure on the use of fossil fuels thus reducing greenhouse gases that are released into the atmosphere are nuclear-based energy supply.
South Africa’s low-income household’s energy consumption per daily power rating (Watt) as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Average energy consumption per household in SA.
Household items Power Rating
(Watts) Power Consumption, Watt per hour per day
Watts per rating Per hour Watt Power Rating
Energy saver globes 8 W – 20 W 5 100
Stove (Hotplate) 1500 W – 2000 W 3 6000
kettle 1850 W 1 1850
Fridge 80 W 24 1920
Iron 1600 W 1 1600
Cellphone charger 10 W – 15.03 W 2 30.06
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Microwave 600 W 1 600
Television 100 W 6 600
Laptop / computer 65 W 6 390
Bluetooth speaker 15.03 W 4 60.12
Total kW/h rating in a 24 hour period 13.150 kW/h
This energy consumption covers the basic needs of a standard living even less compared informal settlement household. There are still households in South Africa that rely heavily on candles. Just over 5% of South Africa’s households use candles as a main source of lighting, according to the General Household Survey (GHS) 2016 report [16]. As a result, South Africa has been experiencing load shedding for quite a while since first initiation year 2008 till to date. It has been observed that renewable energies are leading in the implementation to sustainable energy for all. It is a matter of urgency to come up with a solution now and for future generations to maintain a balanced ecological system, by promoting 100%
renewable energy technologies. The principal use of energy in the household, is the area of concern, for space heating and cooling, water heating, cooking, lighting, and electrical appliances. After considering how energy is used and the scale of its use, resulting in various environmental challenges, renewable sources are the focus primary sector to assess the use of renewable energy in the household sector and more specifically for an isolated home by promoting 100% of the needed energy from renewables.
Hydrogen production and fuel cell technology can be classified as alternative energy producers. Although the first applications of renewable energy sources such as wind, bio products, and photovoltaics are likely to involve the direct production and use of electricity, the potential for using renewables for electricity is limited by the intermittent nature of solar radiation, biomass, and wind energy, and the difficulty of using electricity when the extraction of energy from such technologies is limited. Renewable energy's significance in the global economy may be considerably expanded if they could be turned into conveniently stored energy carriers. Even while this problem can now be solved by using batteries, there are still some environmental issues that hinder the system from being widely accepted. However, because this new technology for creating hydrogen and using it in fuel cells is still in its early stages of development, it is currently impossible to replace existing batteries with a hydrogen-fuel cell combination. Before the aforesaid application can be implemented, more research and development must be completed.
3 ENERGY AVAILABILITY - INTERNATIONALLY
The International Energy Agency (IEA) report on key electricity trends in the world’s developing economies, shows renewable energy overtaking coal as a source of electricity generation for the first time in 2019. In Europe and America, overall fossil fuels dropped, while renewable production rose [17].
U.S. Energy Information Administration’s report that United States renewable energy consumption beats coal for the first time in 130 years as well as other developing countries [18]. German town disconnect from the grid goes 100% renewable for an hour, as the result of the transition to 100% zero-emission
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energy, the research suggests the transition will lead to the creation of more paying jobs. As an innovation, the biogas technology was introduced in Indonesia around 1970 and had largely been disseminated since 1980 by the Minister of Agriculture. In Indonesia, The implementation of mixed crop and livestock farming was extremely essential for smallholder farm households as about two thirds of the world’s rural poor farmers rely on this practice as the backbone of the farming system, the study showed that the adaptation of the biogas technology significantly reduced firewood consumption among smallholder famers and contributed to behavioral changes of the women in the households especially with respect to firewood collection and cooking activities.
4 ENERGY AVAILABILITY - LOCALLY
Local small renewable energy projects (<1 MW) in South Africa, such as Bethlehem Hydro, eThekwini Landfill Gas, Darling Wind farm, PetroSA Biogas Power projects, Hessequa Water purification and George Airport Solar Plant, have proven that successful renewable energy implementation is possible [Ref]. A case study of an excellent programmed prototype energy-efficient solar house that was designed and built at the University of Fort Hare [19]. The Energy Efficient Building Integrated Photovoltaic house was built at the University, which is located 32.8°S and 26.8°E in South Africa. Measures to reduce ghg emissions from the EEBIPV house can be classified in two: reducing energy consumption and demand through energy efficient measures and replacing fossil fuel generated grid supply with BIPV decentralized power. The results shown that using renewable energy technologies and reducing demand through energy efficiency measures in the residential sector does not only take pressure off Eskom’s loaded coal-fired station but also help South Africa to meet its commitments to reduce high carbon emissions and mitigate climate change [19].
Hessequa Municipality, situated in the Western Cape Province of South Africa, is one of 226 local municipalities in South Africa. An estimated population of 54, 237 in 2016 [stats] consisted of 17, 371 households (3.3 residents per household) Saw this potential benefit of energy autarky when a decision was taken to include renewable energy solutions as part of its long-term vision and strategy during an Energy Summit that was held in June 2015 [2]. Potential renewable energy solutions became evident through the discussions of the five strategic themes, namely to 1) plan for sustainable infrastructure and innovative services delivery, 2) provide a space for personal and social cohesion, 3) plan for sustainable economic development, 4) plan for environmental conservation, and 5) keep municipal tariffs affordable [20].
uMhlabuyalingana Local Municipality is one of the five municipalities in uMkhanyakude District, situated in the North-Eastern part of KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa and lies on 27°1’ S 32° 44’ E coordinates. Implemented renewable energy sources micro grid electricity access compared to grid extension. It was discovered that a Stand-alone micro grids are an excellent way to carry power to rural areas, and for Umhlabuyalingana, the best choice for generating all of the energy supply was found to be a PV/Battery micro grid. Its 100% renewable penetration translates to 0 kg/person CO2 emissions, compared to South Africa's overall average of 8.9 kg/person CO2 emissions [2]. South Africa is a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol and the United Nations Framework Convention on climate Change and, as such, has an obligation to mitigate climate change. Policy landscape enables the implementation of renewable energy technologies and promotes ecologically sustainable development and the use of natural resources [20].
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The Kuyasa Low-Income Urban Housing Energy Upgrade Project, which began in 2002, has being subsidized by the City of Cape Town. The goal of this project is to show how energy-efficient technologies such as solar water heaters, insulated ceilings, and compact fluorescent light bulbs can reduce carbon dioxide emissions and other greenhouse gasses while also being cost-effective, improving quality of life, and improving health standards [21].
5 DISCUSSION
Globally, renewable energy has shown a booming rise in terms of producing power to sustain the balance of economy. Table 2 below provides the evidence and confirms these claims. The rise in wind and solar production coincides with a steady decrease in global coal production. Countries across the world are noticeably moving away from the fossil fuel, however not all kinds of renewable energy are suitable for use in all parts of the world, and indeed, suitability of technologies can range widely even within the different regions of a particular country. The South African government appears to be evading the realities of the energy situation, owing to its focus on large-scale energy provision, which does not necessarily result in the required level of energy supply. Furthermore, because these investments are so expensive, macro-level energy creation offers energy that the poor cannot purchase [new]. Small-scale projects, on the other hand, can help promote the transition to a more sustainable energy system [22].
Appropriate technologies that are applicable to South Africa:
Solar Energy Potential For South Africa
Photovoltaic solar panels produce electricity using radiant (light and heat) energy which is converted into electrical energy using semiconducting materials [23]. South Africa has a high level of sunshine, with rainfall that is about half that of the rest of the world. The majority of locations receive an average of 8- 10 hours of sunlight per day, with a nationwide average of 2500 hours per year and a radiation level of 4.5 to 6.6 kWh/m2[24]. The new solar panels are comprised of a special low-cost metal alloy that turns light into electricity. This alloy is thin, light, and flexible, and it may one day be able to cover roof tiles and be installed during the house's roofing stage.
Wind Energy
Wind resources cover almost 80% of South Africa's geographical area, allowing for the creation of cost- effective wind farms with annual load factors more than 30% and a total wind power potential of 67000 GW, which is comparable to solar potential [25]. With the start of the demonstration Darling wind farm in 2008, wind energy began to gain traction in South Africa. Wind power generation, on the other hand, took off after the introduction of REIPPPP, which is currently in its second bidding round with projects under development and the fourth bidding window closed. There are 19 wind energy developments in South Africa, with over 600 wind turbines totaling 1,471MW [26].
Biomass
Biomass produces biofuel from waste: solid waste is usually burned in incinerators liquid waste, such as sewage sludge, manure, food waste, slaughterhouse waste, etc, can be digested into biogas leaking gas from waste dumps that can be collected [27]. South Africa does not currently use its waste for the generation of flammable gas, but there are many sites all over the country that are suitable for this application.
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Table 2: Different types of renewable energy across the globe Renewable Energy
Technologies Objective Region Accessibility Efficiency in Supplying Energy
Current Market Share
PV Panels Solar
power Global Sunny days 21,3% USD 18.0 billion in 2019
Bio-mass Bio-energy Global Waste product 52% USD 344.90
Billion in 2019
Wind Energy Wind
power Global Windy days 50% 650.54 GW in
2019
Batteries Power
(kva) Global When charged 92 - 96% USD 88.49 billion in 2019
Fossil Electricity kwh Global Eskom /
municipality 96% 23,398 TWh global
consumption
Due to loadshedding in many cities across South Africa, fossil-fueled electricity is no longer a reliable source of power. Without scholarly simulations, environmental and weather effect consultations, wealthy individual civilizations are gradually deploying renewable solar technology. Since the method is a more natural way to generate the same amount of watt power per day as fossil-fueled electricity, Renewable energy is becoming more affordable as technology progresses. Renewable energy is now cheaper than coal-fired electricity, according to a CSIR study [28].
6 CONCLUSION
One of the most important findings of this study is the need for a smooth and effective transition of environmental policy to housing development practice, particularly in South Africa, where the pressing need for low-cost housing delivery often leads to the negligence of the equally important renewable energy agenda. The possibility of using energy efficient and renewable energy technology to help South Africa reduce greenhouse gas emissions has been considered. In the study, renewable household technologies are being compared to Eskom fossil fuel-based energy, with the goal of harnessing natural resources in a spectacular and sustainable way. Wind, sunlight, large mass, and batteries all have a good chance of transforming humanity. Small-scale projects can help facilitate the transition to a more sustainable energy system by providing a thorough understanding of both the success criteria and the impediments to broader adoption. This article suggests that reducing demand in the residential sector with renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency measures not only relieves strain on Eskom's overburdened coal-fired power plants, but also helps South Africa meet its promises to lower high carbon content.
Through daily and most adaptable convenient circumstances, the South African public must slowly adopt and adjust to what is also a reliable alternative source of energy. Renewable energy has proven to be a reliable source of everyday sustainable energy in both international and domestic studies. As an
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alternate type of advancement and incentive, adopting and embracing adaptable impacts to what renewable energy can purely transform. Improving the nation's health through the reduction of hazardous emissions, the relief of energy poverty, the creation of long-term jobs, and the strengthening of energy security.
For low income homes to prioritize other energy source such as renewable energy, it requires decentralizing energy supply that fulfils the demands of the community. Coal offers thermal energy for both space heating and cooking. In addition to fossil fuel power, renewable energy can be used as a full- capacity alternate source of energy. The majority of civilisations worth their salt have adopted renewable technologies to power their homes. When compared to wealthy person society energy use, low-income homes' average daily power consumption is significantly lower. It is possible, but it will take time to provide a sufficient amount of renewable energy knowledge and acceptance to source human societies.
The project's success highlighted South Africa's ability to integrate and execute new technology in order to accelerate the country's adoption of renewable energy initiatives.
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Consultation with SALGA and National Treasury. Available: https://www.ee.co.za/wp- content/uploads/2017/06/Eskom-201819-executive-summary.pdf
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REVIEW 1 & 2 SUBMISSION:153
TITLE: The impact of 100% renewable technologies for household demands over fossil- fueled based electricity: A review
FEEDBACK COMMENT
CONTRIBUTION: marginal contribution
It is well researched by lack the Industrial Engineering discipline.
The authors would like to acknowledge this reviewers comment.
Authors have a Mechanical Engineering background with limited Industrial Engineering background. The authors attempeted to accommodate Industrial Engineering readers and other desciplines by providing a summary of each energy haversting source. The paper is basically focusing on the matter of transforming from fossil-fueled electricity to renewable energy, review of renewable energy collection of studies that showed interest in confirming renewable energy has made it, and its still doing well. The paper is focusing on household owners with low income or no income at all. As stated above many studies had shown industrial and large capacity of renewable energy this is time and opportunity to prove and sustain poor household owner how renewable energy can change and transform from fossil fueled based elecetricity to renewable technologies.
METHOD / APPROACH: well reasoned and convincing method/approach
It was well researched and written.
The authors appreciate this encouraging comment from the reviwers.
Energy availability matters are real, and more concerning issues that affect human kind, the world as a whole. The paper is focusing on
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small scale of house hold that can basically affort and some can not affort. Many studies had been focusing on large scale of renwable energy, storage and supply and still currently.
It is a way to solve proplems concering community and to address issues of daily exsistance. Giving attention to small scale household will clarify real issues and come up with solution for our community.
CLARITY: acceptable - minor rework required Yes, minimal rework
Authors again acknowledge the reviewers comments and would like to apologise for the inconvinince.
A lot is been taken to consideration due to clarity and additional information based on current issues and how to link that with engineering as such to be applicable and acceptable. Updates are current situation of how renewable energy is doing, confirming to what literature has stated. Daily, weekly and montly updated are to clarify this matter due to experimets, simulation and also actual implementation.
QUALITY: minor issues
Yes, it conforms to accepted Standards and style of paper
The authors appreciate this comment.
CONFERENCE THEME: clearly related to the conference theme
This review contains an attachment, see the file review_1.docx attached to this letter.
Thank you
